EHI - 5

14th Part

Q.  Compare and contrast the main features of the Permanent Settlement and the Mahalwari settlement. Were they able to fulfill their objectives?           20

A.  Permanent Settlement - Main Features - 

In this method, the land tax to be paid to the government was permanently fixed with assurance from the government not to increase it in the future. The state would not demand anything extra even if the production increases as it was believed that landholders would invest money in improving the land.

Zamindars - The zamindars became the agents of govt who were assigned the duty to collect taxes (land reverse). The zamindar had to pay the tax fixed upon it by collecting from the peasantry and if he did so then he was the proprietor, the owner of his zamindari. He could sell, mortgage or transfer it. The land would be inherited by heirs after him. If however, the zamindar failed to pay the tax due, then the Government would take the zamindari and sell it by auction and all the rights would vest in the new owner. 

Peasantry - The actual cultivation of the land was carried on by the peasants who were reduced to the status of tenants of the zamindars. Now the peasants were wholly at

the mercy of the zamindars who can evict them at will. 

             The permanent assessment demand was the largest sum that could be extracted from the land by the government. It was a heavy and oppressive assessment. The tax demand was huge, it led to oppressive methods employed by zamindars to collect revenues. The zamindars could seize the tenant's property if the rent had not been paid. He did not need the permission of any court of law to do this. This greatly worsened the position of the actual cultivators of the soil, in order to benefit the zamindars and the British Government.

The objective of Permanent Settlement - The main objective of this system was to get maximum money out of land every year without variation. The zamindars were obliged to pay a fixed amount by fixed dates every year, and any failure on their part meant the sale of the zamindari. Furthermore, many of the zamindaris were rated for large sums that left no

margin for shortfalls due to flood, drought or another calamity. As a result, many zamindars had their zamindaris taken away and sold in the decades immediately after the permanent Settlement. The government benefited immensely which was the primary objective. 

Mahalwari System - Main Features

The officials went from village to village, inspecting the land, measuring the fields and recording customs and rights of different groups. The estimated revenue of each plot within a village was added up to calculate the revenue that each village had to pay. Revenue was not fixed, rather revised periodically. The charge of collecting the revenue and paying it to the government was given to the village headman. 

     The land revenue was collected from the village directly through its pradhan or muqaddam (headman). In the revenue records, the word used for a fiscal unit was a 'mahal', and the village-wise assessment, therefore, came to be called a mahalwari settlement. It was however quite possible for one person to hold a number of villages so that many big zamindars continued to exist.         

Far from favoring the village communities, the mahalwari ruined them by imposing impossible tax assessments. The result of this situation was that large areas of land began to pass into the hands of money-lenders and merchants who ousted the old cultivating proprietors or reduced them to tenants-at will. The mahalwari settlement brought impoverishment and widespread dispossession to the cultivating communities due to arbitrary and high reverse demands by the government.

Objective - The main objective of the government was to collect maximum revenue directly from the peasantry without the zamindars. Moreover, the tax demand was imposed arbitrarily without full assessment leading to very high revenue demands. Gradually land began to be passed into the hands of moneylenders who benefited immensely. 

           In 1833, the Mahalwari settlement was introduced in Punjab, the Central Provinces and parts of North-Western Provinces. Under this system, the basic unit of revenue settlement was the village or the Mahal. As the village lands belonged jointly to the village community, the responsibility of paying the entire Mahal was on the village community. So the entire land of the village was measured at the time of fixing the revenue. Though the Mahalwari system eliminated middlemen between the government and the village community and brought about an improvement in irrigation facilities, its benefit was largely enjoyed by the government.

       The mahalwari settlement brought impoverishment and widespread dispossession to the cultivating communities of North India in the 1830s ad 1840s and their resentment expressed itself in popular uprisings in 1857. In that year villagers and taluqdars all over North India drove off government officials, destroyed court and official records and papers, and ejected the new auction purchasers from the villages.

Q. Discuss the salient aspects of the Hyderabad administrative setup.         20    

A.    Hyderabad administration -  

Army - 

The army was an important component of the polity that emerged in Hyderabad. The Nizam-ul-Mulk essentially followed a policy of allowing the existing jagirdari holdings. The military commanders and their troops were tied to the political system through their individual employer, mainly the nobles. Like in the Mughal army, the Hyderabad army too was maintained from the cash allowances drawn by the nobles from the Nizam's treasury. 

Land Revenue System -  

The land revenue system in Hyderabad allowed intermediaries to function. Three important features were, firstly there existed ijara or revenue farming land. Secondly, there were a large number of peshkush zamindars whose lands were not officially assessed but required to give an annual tribute or peshkush on the basis of their own assessment records. Thirdly even where the zamindars and deshpandes (village chiefs) had to pay the land revenue assessed by the state, their consent was obtained. The land revenue administration in Hyderabad had officers under amils (provincial heads). Measures for regular assessment and survey were taken. Encouragement was given to the cultivator by the state policy of loans and reprieves.  

Patrons and Clients - 

Personal relations with Nizam or military skills were important for career advancement in Hyderabad. So to become powerful in Hyderabad, the mansab rank (as under the Mughal system) did not prevent the rise of the noble. Many Zamindars or Jagirdars who could rally the smaller intermediaries behind them, could with a little military skill and diplomacy became powerful.  

Vakils - 

Aiding this process of grabbing wealth and power was a network of intermediate clients called the vakils. These vakils acted as agents between Nizam and nobles, nobles and nobles and Nizam and outside powers. The vakis also provided opportunities for individuals within the huge and affluent establishments maintained by the Hyderabadi nobles. The vakils normally acted on the basis of interests of individuals and were powerful only in so far as their patron was powerful. However switching of loyalties, for personal gain was common.

 The Local Chiefs

The local chiefs under the Nizam continued to control their inherited land on the payment of tribute to the Nizam. Though they played the role of patrons like Nizams and his nobles, they were never fully integrated within the Hyderabad political system. Nor did their vakils maintain the relationship with other rulers. The local chiefs did not even follow the lifestyle of Hyderabad court and as such seemed content to remain out of the sphere of the court politics. However, they could become decisive individual factors when the Hyderabad court was weak. 

Financial And Military Groups - 

Bankers; money-lenders and military commanders (usually mercenaries) played an important role in the political system of Hyderabad. They played a key role since they provided essential financial and military service to the state. Their strength derived mainly from the community they came from and in contrast to the vakils they functioned as caste or community groups. Some of the main community or caste groups amongst the financial groups were the Agarwal and Marwaris while Afghans and Arabs were prominent military groups. By threatening to withdraw support and services these individuals and groups could at their level play an important role in the balance of the polity. 

Administrative System -  

The administrative system seems to follow the trend of other aspects of the Hyderabad

polity. The earlier Mughal institutions apparently continued but now allowing the consolidation of the vested interests and in the process allowing individuals to profit. The most illustrative is the case of the office of diwan who conducted most of the day to day-affairs of the state of Hyderabad. Here instead of the diwan, the subordinate hereditary office of daftardars or the record keepers became more important. In the absence of salaried officials to conduct matters like revenue, these record keepers were able to exercise real control by deciding the amount of revenue by local deshpande or taluqdar and putting it on records. This allowed a lot of them also to make a huge amount of wealth.

Q.  Discuss the establishment of the British civil services in India.    

 A.   The main job of the civil service was to translate the law into action and the collection of revenue. The term 'civil services' was used, for the first time by the East India Company mainly to demarcate its civilian employees from their military counterparts. The service was initially the only commercial in nature but was late transformed into public service.

From the very beginning, it was a graded post-the gradations being-Apprentices, writers, factors. junior merchants then finally senior merchants. It was from senior merchants that appointments for higher services including the Governor were made.

This system of grading continued until 1839. The method of recruitment, however, remained through the system of patronage in the hands of the court of Directors who were free to nominate their sons and nephews for the services.

The idea of 'competition' for recruitment (as against nomination practiced earlier) was introduced for the first time by the Charter Act of 1833. But it was to be a very limited competition and could be termed as nomination-cum-competition for recruitment. But gradually the demand for open Public competition started gaining ground. The Charter Act of 1853 ultimately took away the power of the court of Directors to make nominations and made a provision for open competition. 

        The officers of the civil services were employed both in the control officer and the district. The Chief Officer in the district was the collector who was initially responsible exclusively for the collection of revenue. He had the authority to decide all disputes related to the boundary and the rent. He was assisted by a Tehsildar who was an Indian. After the reforms of 1831, the offices of the Magistrate and the local chief of Police were also transferred to him. This gave him total authority in the district. Given the large size of some of the districts, a post of Deputy Collector, placed between the Collector and the Tehsildar in the hierarchy was also created after 1831. This was soon converted into an uncovenanted post which meant that experienced Indians could be employed as Deputy Collectors.

The Indian Civil Services in years to come developed into one of the most efficient and powerful civil services in the world. Its members played a very crucial role in the framing of the British Policies in India and also in maintaining and running the mighty British empire in India. The result was a network of laws applicable throughout the country and a vast administrative structure to implement the laws.

Q.  What was the impact of the Charter Act of 1833? Discuss. 

A.  At the time for the renewal of the Charter in 1833, there was widespread agitation for the abolition of the Company and take over of administration by the Crown. The Act of 1833 was a great landmark in the constitutional history of India.

The monopoly of tea trade with China was abolished. The Company was to have only political functions. India was to pay the Company's debts. Its shareholders were guaranteed a dividend of 10.5 percent per annum. The union of the trader and the sovereign was finally dissolved, the Indian possessions of the Company were to be held in trust for the British Crown. The President of the Board of-Control became the minister for Indian affairs. The Directors were to act as expert advisors of the President of the Board of Control. The Board of Control was invested with authority to superintend, direct and control the affairs of the Company relating to the Government or revenues of the Indian territory which vested in the Company in trust for the English Crown. 

Governor-General of Bengal became the Governor-General of India. The Governor-General in Council was to control, superintend and direct the civil and military affairs of the Company. Bombay, Bengal, Madras and other regions were subjected to complete control of the Governor-General in Council. Central Government was to have complete control over the raising of revenues and expenditure. Expenses of Provincial Governments, creation of new offices, and obedience of all members of the Government of Bombay, Madras were under the strict control of the Central Government.

By the Act of 1833, the Governor-General in Council was given the power to legislate for the whole of the British territories in India. These laws were applicable to all persons, British or Indian foreigners or others and to the servants of the Company. They were enforceable by all courts in India.

        The Act provided for the codification of laws in India. There were several types of laws before 1833. There were the English Acts, Presidency Regulations, Hindu Law, Muslim Law, Customary Law, etc. By this Act, the Governor-General was empowered to appoint the Law Commission to study, collect and codify various rules and regulations prevalent in India. The Indian Penal Code and Codes of Civil and Criminal Law were enacted by the efforts of the Indian Law Commission.   

Q. Discuss the role of Raja Ram Mohun Roy in taking forward the social reforms in India.

A.       Raja Ram Mohun Roy started the Atmiya Sabha and carried on the struggle against the religious and social malpractices prevalent in the society. He denounced idolatry and advocated monotheism. He blamed the Brahman priests for spreading superstitions and by keeping people ignorant about the true teachings of the indigenous scriptures. To educate the people he published the Bengali translation of some of the scriptures and extensively wrote in defense of monotheism.

 In 1828 he established a new society, the Brahma Sabha which later came to be known as the Brahma Samaj. His primary objective was to rid Hinduism of its evils and to preach monotheism. Brahma Samaj incorporated the best teachings of other religions and acted as a powerful platform for spreading humanism, monotheism, and social regeneration.  

          Ram Mohan Roy was extremely pained at the prevailing social degeneration. In particular, he was concerned with the pitiable plight of women in society. He launched a crusade against the evil practice of Sati, the burning of a widow on her husband's funeral pyre. His agitation bore fruit when in 1829 Lord William Bentinck, the Governor-General of India, enacted a law against the practice of Sati. He condemned polygamy, early marriage and opposed the subjugation of women and their inferior status in society. According to him, female education was an effective method to deal with the problems of women in society. 

        He propagated the introduction and spread of modern education in the society. Along with many Indian notables of Calcutta, he founded the Hindu College in 1817 and also ran an English School in Calcutta. In 1825 he founded the Vedanta College which offered both Indian and Western learning. He laid stress on the assimilation of Western scientific knowledge, Mathematics, Natural Philosophy, Chemistry, Anatomy, and other useful sciences. He believed it will help in the regeneration of society.

        Raja Ram Mohan Roy attacked the rigidness of the caste system which, according to him, had been the source of disunity among Indians. He believed that the caste system has created inequality and division among the people on the one hand, and 'deprived them of patriotic feeling' on the other. Through his social reforms, he wished to lay the foundations for the unity of Indian society which was divided into divergent groups.

Q.  Comment on the rise of the novel in India.         12

A.   Under the influence of the West, there emerged a completely new branch in Indian literature in the latter half of the nineteenth century. This was the novel that was accompanied by the short story. This brought in its wake a new social realism in Indian literature. Alaler Gharer Dulal by Pyarechand Mitra, which is sometimes cited as the first novel in Bengali, was a satirical social sketch published in 1858.    

In 1862, Bhudev Mukhopadhyay published two romantic historical tales in Bengali. He entitled it Aitihasik Upanyas (Historical Fiction). The word 'upanyas' later on became the common word for 'novel' in several north Indian languages. Prose romances approaching to the form of the novel appeared in Marathi around the same time: Muktamala (1861) by Lakshman Moreshwar Halbe and Manjughosha (1868) by Naro Sadasiv Risbud.   

      Nazir's Ahmad's Miratul- Urus (1969), a didactic narrative contrasting the lives of a good sister and a bad one, is identified as the first novel in Urdu. Pandit Gauri Dutt's Devrani Jethani ki Kahani, published next year in Hindi, had an almost identical theme. Subsequently, the Tamil Christian author, Samuel Vedanyakam PilGi, wrote the first original novel in Tamil, Prathapa Mudaliar Charitram (1879).   

     With BankimChandra Chatterjee's first original work in Bengali Durgesh Nandni (1865), the novel came of age in India. Chatterjee's incomparable novels, set mostly in a historical context, followed one after another. Ananda-Math (1882), set against the background of the Sannyasi Rebellion in Bengali, contained the famous nationalist song 'Bande Mataram'.

Rajasthan (1881), with the Rajput rebellion against Emperor Aurangzeb as its theme, was another stirring historical novel. Chatterjee's contemporary Romesh Chunder Dutt wrote several historical novels under his influence, of which the two most famous are Maharashtra Jivan Prabhat (1878) and Rajput Jivan Sandhya (1979). The historical novel came into vogue in other Indian languages, too. The reason is that contemporary society in the late nineteenth century afforded little scope for love and heroism on account of numerous social restrictions. In consequence, tales of heroism and love had to be set in a historical context. 

Q) Awadh state       6

A.  Saadat Khan was assigned the Subadari of Awadh in 1722. Saadat Khan devoted his energies to make Awadh an independent center of authority. Prevailing weaknesses in the imperial administration following the death of Aurangzeb helped him in fulfilling his ambition. Immediately after taking control of Awadh Saadat Khan faced strong resistance from numerous rebellious chiefs and rajas in Awadh. In order to consolidate his position the measures he took were:

#  Suppression of rebellious local Zamindars. and chieftains,

#  Circumscribing the authority of the Madad-i-mash grantees,

#  Systematizing revenue collection, and also

#  Negotiation with some local Zamindars.

He nominated his son-in-law Safdar Jang as Deputy governor of the province without waiting for imperial sanction. Safdar Jang continued to follow the policy of Saadat khan and between 1739 and 1764 tried to gain greater autonomy of Awadh. The outward allegiance to the Emperor was still maintained, for example,

#  Emperor's formal confirmation was taken for the appointment in the high offices,

#  Revenues were sent to the imperial treasury,

#  Orders, Titles, etc. were given in the name of the Mughal Emperor, etc.

Q)  Asiatic Society            6

A.  Asiatic society was formed with the task of unearthing knowledge about Asia both within and outside Asia. William Jones, an English Jurist started it in 1784 to rediscover India, to acquire the knowledge of the golden past of India. The Society received full blessings of the Governor-General and an era of studying India from within close quarters of its social, religious, linguistic and political aspects began. This in itself was a departure from the early travelers who would normally record impressions and go away. The Asiatic Society contributed in a major way by translating from Persian and Sanskrit works of Grammar, Puranas and the writings of Kalidasa. Secondly, the members of the Asiatic Society researched and published a large number of articles on Indian society and religion. The Governor-General Warren Hastings wanted to use the knowledge acquired thus to be passed on to those who could be involved in the project of administering India. 

EHI - 5

13th Part

Block -8

Q  Analyse the nature of popular movements before 1857.   12

Q  Discuss the nature and significance of popular revolts till 1857.  

A  Leadership - These movements were led by the leaders who were not outsiders, they rose and fell with the movement. The leadership of these movements were in the hands of men or women who belong to the same cultural background of the peasants that they led. They were able to articulate the problems of the oppressed in a more efficient way. The sanyasi rebellion showed how holy men spearheaded the movement as leaders. They wanted to return to the past glorious period. Thus the notion that all land belongs to the god and everyone had an equal share in it, strikes a chord with the peasantry and mobilized the oppressed peasants in large numbers. 

Participation and Mobilization - Some features of the peasant and tribal protest movements demonstrate a certain level of political & social consciousness. For example, the Kols in 1832 did not attack the tribal population in clear recognition of who their allies were. Attack on Kacharis by tribals in 1783 points out the recognition of place and source of peasant's oppression. Sometimes tribal revolts broadened its ambit to include other issues that were different from the grievances which started off a protest movement. For example the Moplah rebellions in the nineteenth century in Malabar, it started as the struggle against the landlords but ended up as a protest against British rule itself. 

           In spite of the attempt of British officials to portray tribals as criminals, these movements were political in nature. For example, the Santhals gave ample warning in advance to the villages they attacked. The tribals claimed they were righteous as they had approval from a higher authority. For example the Santhal leaders Sidho and Kanho claimed in fact that it was the 'thakoor' (local god) who himself would fight the white soldiers in a clear indication that they had approval from god. The public legitimacy to the struggle led to the public conference, planning, assembly, and attack. 

        Different types of tensions between class, caste or ethnic and religious groups helped in uniting the rebels against the perceived enemy. For example in Mapilla rebellion religion formed a bond in uniting the poorer and more affluent sections of the peasantry to fight against landlord oppression who belonged to a different religion. Protest movements of the oppressed peasants and tribals did not emerge all of a sudden. Often an insurgency was preceded by the rise in the rate of rural crimes. For example in 1854, a year before the Santhal rebellion, a number of dacoities were committed against the local money-lenders.

Q  Write an essay on the major peasant and tribal uprisings in India prior to the Revolt of 1857.                   20

A  The Sanyasi Rebellion, 1763-1800

 Even before the great famine of Bengal in1770, small groups of Hindu and Muslim holy men traveled from one place to another and made sudden attacks on the storehouses where food crops were kept and property of the local rich men and government officials. Though the Sanyasis and Fakirs were religious men, originally they were peasants, including some who were evicted from the land. The growing hardship of the peasantry due to increased revenue demand and the Bengal famine of 1770 brought a large member of disposed of small Zamindars, disbanded soldiers and rural poor into the bands of Sanyasis and Fakirs. They moved around in different parts of Bengal and Bihar in bands of 5 to 7 thousand and adopted the guerrilla technique of attack. Their target of the attack was the grain stocks of the rich and at a later stage, government officials. They looted local government treasuries.

Sometimes the wealth looted was distributed among the poor. One noticeable feature of these revolts was the equal participation of Hindus and Muslims in it. Some of the important leaders of these movements were Manju Shah, Musa Shah, Bhawani Pathak, and Debi Chaudhurani. The encounter between the Sanyasis-Fakirs and the British forces became a regular feature all over Bengal and Bihar till 1800. The British used its full force to suppress the rebels.

The Mappila Uprisings, 1836-54

Mappilas are the descendants of the Arab settlers and converted Hindus. The majority of them were cultivating tenants, landless laborers, petty traders, and fishermen. The British occupied of Malabar in the last decade of the eighteenth century. Thereafter the British introduced changes in the land revenue administration which brought unbearable hardship in the life of the Mappilas. Over-assessment, illegal taxes, eviction from the land, hostile attitude of government officials were some of the many reasons that made the Mappilas rebel rose up in revolt against the British and the landlords. The religious leaders played an important role in creating consciousness among the Mappilas against the landlords and the British. 

The growing discontentment of the Mappilas resulted in open rebellion against the state and landlords. Between 1836 and 1854 there were about twenty-two uprisings in Malabar. In these uprisings, the rebels came mostly from the poorer section of the Mappila population. The target of the rebels was generally the British officials, Janmis and their dependents. The British armed forces swung into action to suppress the rebels but failed to subdue them for many years.

The Santhal Rebellion, 1855-56

The area of maximum concentration of Santhals was called Daman-i-koh or Santhal Pargana. When the Santhals cleared the forest and started cultivating the area the neighboring Rajas of Maheshpur and Pakur leased out the Santhal villages to Zamindars and money-lenders. Gradual penetration by outsiders (called dikus by the Santhals) in the territory of the Santhals brought misery and oppression to the simple living Santhals. The oppression by money-lenders, merchants, Zamindars and government officials forced the Santhals to take up arms in order to protect themselves. Initial protests of the Santhals were in the form of robbery and looting of Zamindars and money-lenders houses. But violent suppression of these activities and harassment of Santhals at the hands of police and local officials made them more violent. The rebel Santhals found their leaders in two brothers, Sidhu and Kanu, who were believed to have received the blessing from the gods to put an end to the ongoing oppression of the Santhals.

Q  Discuss the nature and significance of the Revolt of 1857. 20

A   There is no unanimity among history scholars regarding the nature of the revolt of 1857 and there is a general debate between scholars regarding the reasons for the Revolt of 1857. Some of the reasons for the revolt are - sepoy mutiny, national struggle or the first war of independence and attempts by Feudal lords to reestablish their domination.

British Historians - All the British historians, in particular, Sir John Lawrance and Seelay are of the view that it was a sepoy mutiny as the sepoys refused to use the greased cartridges of the Enfield rifles and opposed the move. This was an attempt by British historians to minimize the grievances of Indians and to restrict it only to a section of the army’s revolt. Further, the British tried to portray civil disturbances as the actions of selfish vested interests of the landholders and the princes. Some considered it was a conspiracy hatched by the Hindus and the Muslims against the British.

Indian -  it was the first war of Indian independence inspired by the ideal of self-rule by Indians through nationalist upsurge. It is believed that it is very difficult to make a generalization of the 1857 event as the response of the people varied from one area to another and as such it is argued that the revolt of 1857 was not one movement but many. 

Significance - The 1857 revolt though failed and crushed by the superior military force of the British was a significant event of far-reaching consequences in the history of British rule in India. It marks the end of an era of mercantile capitalism and early colonial rule and the beginning of direct imperial hegemony of the British crown. The results of the 1857 revolt may be subdivided as:

(i) Constitutional changes,

(ii) Changes in the army,

(iii) Religious, judicial and diplomatic effects, and

(iv) Social effects.

Constitutional Changes:

The most significant result of the mutiny was the transfer of power from a trading company to a sovereign power of Britain by the Government of India Act of 1858. This Act of 1858 completed the process initiated by the Charter Act of 1853. In the place of the President of the Board of Control, the Secretary of State for India was appointed. The Secretary of State for India was assisted and helped by a 15-member body of India Council. The designation of the Governor-General of India was changed to Viceroy. 

Changes in the Army: - The artillery section was exclusively kept under the British. As a consequence of more European soldiers in the army, the expen­diture on the army doubled up. The Bengal Army was virtually abolished.

EHI - 5

12th Part

Q  What was the nature of the 19th-century reform movement in India?  12

Q  Analyse the social and religious ideas of the 19th-century reformers.    12

Q  Write a critical note on the social and religious ideas of the 19th-century reformers. 12

A   The reformers attacked the socio-cultural evils and religious malpractices that were prevalent in the society such as superstitions and irrationality. The intellectuals did not attack the social system as a whole, their attack was centered only on the perversions and distortions that have crept into the system. They did not advocate a complete breakdown in the existing social structure of the country. In other words, they were advocates of reform and not exponents of revolution.

 The intellectual movement in India was an urban phenomenon. It originated and greatly operated in the urban areas only. The methods used for the propagation of ideas for furthering the cause of reform and for the creation of favourable public opinion were the urban communication channels such as the press, lectures, and sabhas as propaganda network. Although their activities were confined to certain urban pockets, yet the intellectuals were concerned about the plight of society in different regions and the country as a whole.

Social Questions - Nearly all the intellectuals concluded that the condition of women in India was deplorable and wretched. 

Promoted polygamy- The intellectuals demanded equal distribution of rights to women on par with men. They also emphasized the spread of education among women which they considered as a liberating force. Contrary to the British educational policy, science education was given priority by them They were opposed to the monopoly of learning by certain upper castes and class&, and proposed the spread of knowledge to all the segments of society

          The intellectuals placed a very high premium on knowledge. Illiteracy in general & especially among women was held responsible for the degeneration & backwardness of the nation. The spread of education was considered very important. Nearly all the intellectuals held education to be the panacea for all problems

Religious ideas - Thinkers denounced idolatry, polytheism, and the role of priests in spreading superstitions. Social reformers like Raja R M Roy blamed Brahman priests for spreading superstitions and by keeping people ignorant about the true teachings of the indigenous scriptures.

Use of Scriptures

The intellectuals cited Hindu scriptures to justify the reform in the society. The scriptures were used by them according to the need and desirability for furthering the cause of reform.    

Q  Write a note on the main ideas of the reform movement of the 19th century.                   12

Q  What were the main issues taken up by Indian reformers during the 19th century.      20

A  The intellectuals placed a very high premium on knowledge. Illiteracy in general and among women, in particular, was held responsible for national degeneration and backwardness. The spread of education was, therefore, accorded a primary position in the scheme of reform. Nearly all the intellectuals held education to be the panacea for all problems. Contrary to the British educational policy, science education was given priority by them They were opposed to the monopoly of learning by certain upper castes and class&, and proposed the spread of knowledge to all the segments of society. Above answer 

Q  Write a critical note on the contribution and limitations of the 19th-century reform movements in India.   20

A  Contribution includes an emphasis on education, women education, child marriage, eradication of sati, infanticide, social mobility by a new consciousness, etc

Limitations - In terms of impact, extent & achievements, the 19th-century reform movement could not achieve any spectacular success. Caste differences continue to remain strong and the religious and social practices did not die away. Child-marriage and enforced widowhood continue to be a problem as ever. Reform movement affected a very small minority. The masses remained nearly untouched by the ideas of the intellectuals. 

Although the social reformers tried to reach a larger audience by writing in the vernaculars, but despite their best efforts, their ideas were largely confined to the urban middle classes, particularly the educated sections. The methods used for the propagation of ideas for furthering the cause of reform and for the creation of favourable public opinion were the urban communication channels such as the press, lectures, and sabhas as propaganda network. Given the problem of widespread illiteracy in the rural areas & lack of modern and diversified communications networks, they were doomed to have a very limited audience, mainly urban-based. Thus despite their best efforts, the movement remained urban which was its limitations. The colonial rule was also a hindrance in their activities, intellectual ideas and activities could not, therefore, stir the minds of the general public.

EHI - 5

11th Part 

Q  Young Bengal Movement                                               6

A  In the early 19th century, new and radical ideas began to be propagated by a band of young Bengali intellectuals known as the Young Bengal. This movement was largely initiated by an Anglo-Indian teacher of the Hindu College named Henry Vivian Derozio. A free thinker & a rationalist himself he encouraged his students to have a radical and critical outlook. He encouraged them to question all authority, loved liberty and worshiped truth. At Hindu College through his teachings, he influenced his students and won their loyalty. He organized debates where ideas and social norms were freely debated. He constantly encouraged his students to think freely and requested them not to accept anything blindly. His teachings laid stress on the development of the Spirit Of Liberty, equality, and freedom. His activities brought an intellectual revolution in Bengal and his followers known as the Derozians. They attacked old and decadent customs and traditions and began to question the whole fabric of Hindu society and religion. They were staunch rationalists and measured everything with the yardstick of reason. 

Q  Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar                                            6   

A  Pandit Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar was a great Sanskrit scholar. Vidyasagar became the principal of the Sanskrit College in 1851. He introduced the study of western knowledge in the Sanskrit College and opened its gates to non-Brahmin students. His great contribution, however, was in the field of female emancipation. Widow's marriage was the specific social issue he devoted his entire life to. His agitation for legalizing the re-marriage of widows was supported by the enlightened sections in the society. This social issue was supported by various parts of the country and finally, such a law was enacted. Under the supervision of Vidyasagar the first legal Hindu widow-marriage among the upper castes in India was celebrated in 1856. Through his endeavors, nearly 25 widow marriages were organized between 1855 and 1860. He promoted the higher education of women for their general uplift. He also campaigned against child-marriage and polygamy.

Q  Jyotiba Phule                                      6

A  Jotiba Phule was an Indian social activist, a thinker, anti-caste social reformer and a writer from Maharashtra. He was involved in fighting for various social issues including the eradication of untouchability and the caste system, woman's emancipation, etc. In 1873, Phule, along with his followers, formed the Satyashodhak Samaj (Society of Seekers of Truth). The main objective was to attain equal rights for the people belonging to lower castes. People from all religions and castes could become a part of this association which worked for the upliftment of the oppressed classes. He realized that lower castes and women were the most oppressed in Indian society. He believed that education in these sections was vital to their emancipation. He and his wife, Savitribai Phule opened a school for girls. He was also in favor of widow marriage.

Q  Arya Samaj                                                 6

A  The social and religious reform movement in North India was spearheaded by Swamy Dayanand Saraswati who founded the Arya Samaj in 1875. He blamed the Brahman priests for spreading superstitions and by keeping people ignorant about the true teachings of the indigenous scriptures. He stood for inter-caste marriages and female education. However, his inclination towards the Vedas which he regarded as infallible gave his teachings an orthodox look. The Arya Samajists played a vital role in furthering the cause of social reform movement in North India. They were instrumental in weeding out social evils. They worked for the improvement of women, advocated social equality & denounced untouchability and caste-rigidness prevalent in society. Although the Vedas were venerated as infallible by Arya Samaj yet the reforms they undertook were based on free-thinking and rationalism. Arya Samaj established a chain of educational institutions for the education of both boys and girls.

Q  Discuss the social reform movements initiated through the Brahmo Samaj and the Arya Samaj. 12

A  Raja Ram Mohan Roy in 1828 established a new society, the Brahma Sabha which later came to be known as the Brahma Samaj. His primary purpose was to rid Hinduism of its evils and to preach monotheism. It incorporated the best teachings of other religions and acted as a powerful platform for the advocacy of humanism, monotheism, and social regeneration. The Brahmasamajists collectively contributed to the propagation of Rammohan's ideas and changing Bengal's society. They denounced priestly intermediation in religious matters and stood for the worship of one God. They supported widow-marriage, monogamy and women's education.

Can add Raja Roy contribution and Arya samaj above.

Q  Discuss the nature of social discrimination in India. How did people oppose social discrimination? 20

Q  Discuss the nature of social discrimination in India. How did the discriminated groups react to it?           12

Q  How did new consciousness develop against social discrimination in India? 12

Q  Discuss the various forms of social discrimination practiced in India.      12

A      Nature - Indian society being based on the caste system gave birth to different types of social discrimination. The society was divided among two broad social orders - privileged and dis-privileged castes. Viewed from the economic angle, the jatis were hereditary and closed occupation groups. On the two extreme ends were the Brahmins who were the privileged group and the untouchables who faced severe discrimination and were the disprivileged group. 

        The nature of discrimination differed from region to region in the early years of the nineteenth century. In large parts of the Madras Presidency the bulk of the agricultural laborers, belonging to low caste groups. They were said to have been reduced virtually to conditions of slavery. They were forbidden from entering into temples. Wells were strictly forbidden to their use. They were denied the right to carry an umbrella, to wear shoes, golden ornaments, to milk cows, to walk in certain streets, and their women were forbidden to cover their breasts.

        In western India, institutionalized social discrimination persisted against the lower castes groups. They were socially and economically exploited by high castes. Forced labor from artisans and other menial jobs were taken from them by the authorities. It was a common norm in Maharashtra besides restrictions on temple worship. 

        In the Northern and Eastern parts, the conditions were deplorable for untouchables. The barbers, washermen and sometimes even the scavengers refused their services to them. In the social feasts, they were required to sit at a distance from the rest and clear up their own dishes. They occupied an utterly degraded position in the village life. In Bengal, they provided labor services to the high caste Maliks and most of them were ultimately reduced to the position of bonded labor. The Chamars, including Mochis, are found in every part of India, however, they were highly concentrated in the U P and in the bordering area of Bihar on the east and of Punjab on the north-west. Apart from their customary profession, they were often called upon to- perform begar services by the landlords.

  Opposition  - Over a period of time, due to colonial rule and penetration of market forces at the rural level new social consciousness emerged among the depressed classes. Economic opportunities and missionary activities opened up new possibilities and created new opportunities for the depressed castes. It leads to economic prosperity among the dis-privileged Groups. In the changing circumstances, the ideology of hierarchy based society failed to carry conviction especially among the victims of social discrimination. 

         The articulation of this new consciousness was visible in the growth of the Sanskritization process among different lower caste groups. There were others who converted to Christianity in order to escape from the grim realities of the caste-based system. For example, In Travancore, education and Christianity gave the Nadars hope to escape from their sufferings who were till then under the domination of the Nair landlords. Covering of breasts by untouchable women was the first major movement which was launched among the depressed classes to remove the badge of servility. 

         Apart from missionary activities, Indian reformers also contributed immensely towards ending social discrimination from society. The gradual introduction of electoral politics further gave a boost to the lower caste movements. A section of prosperous groups among untouchables like Namasudras of Bengal began to sanskritize their way of life and claim a high kshatriya status. The Namasudra leaders displayed an attitude of defiance to the social authority of the higher castes, organized their caste brethren within the Matua sect and embarked on a policy of protest. Similarly, Nadars in Tamil Nadu who became economically efficient began to sanskritize their manner of life and asserted a high kshatriya status. Towards the close of the nineteenth century, they became powerful enough to challenge the ban on temple entry and in 1895 forced their way into the Sivakasi temple. The Mahars of Maharashtra also claimed Kshatriya status and began to organize themselves under Gopal Baba Walangkar. Towards the end of the 19th century, they emerged as the core group for Ambedkar movement. 

EHI - 5

10th Part

Q  Analyse the importance of the utilitarian ideas in bringing about change in India.  12

Q  Discuss the role of the utilitarian ideas on the British attitude towards India.     12

Q  Utilitarianism                                                           6

Q  How were the Utilitarian ideas on India different from the Orientalist ones?      12

A  Utilitarians were largely responsible for the kind of administration and judicial system that came into being in India. The utilitarians reflected on how to govern and control India and their ideas gradually gained acceptance in Britain perhaps because they represented and combined the interest of the British merchants. manufacturers and missionaries. The utilitarian ideas were - 

#  Indian society was seen by them as completely devoid of the values of rationalism and individualism, which were considered essential principles for building a modern society.

#  A traditional and decadent society like India could be improved through proper legislation, which would impart "human justice" as against "divine justice" practiced in traditional societies. This meant that "British administration with its principles of justice and uniformity could convert India into a progressive and dynamic society. 

#  James Mill, therefore, dismissed the idea of giving any power and responsibility to Indians. Utilitarians prescribed a modern machine of government, run by the British. 

     Thus, the utilitarian thinking was an advocacy of a 'Rule of Law'. Laws were to be scientifically defined & embodied in a written form in codes. They were to be implemented through the creation of a body of local courts to make the law accessible to every man. Only this could create an individualist competitive society. The Rule of Law meant that the administration was now to be carried out strictly according to certain laws that defined the rights, privileges, and obligations of the people, and not according to the personal desires of the rulers. It also meant that in theory at least, nobody was above law. Even the official. and those who supervised law, were in theory, accountable to the same set of laws and could be brought before a court of law for violating any law. The law once formulated, could place

restrictions on the actions of the rulers. However, the laws formulated and interpreted were such that they contained enough space for the oppression of the people.

        Equality before the law meant that in theory all the citizens irrespective of their caste, status, etc. were now placed at an equal footing in the eyes of the law. The concept of equality before law did not, of course, include Europeans into its fold. Separate courts and laws were set up for them. In criminal cases, they could be tried only by the European Judges. In reality, total equality before the law could not possibly be implemented. But it did bring about national equality among Indians.   

Q  Explain the administrative and judicial systems developed by the British in India in the19th century.                              20

Q  What was the nature of the new administrative system introduced by the British in India?                                  20

Q  The Administrative system developed by the British     6

Q  What was the nature of the judicial and administrative system that was established by the British in India?                 12

Q  What were the changes and innovations introduced by the British in Indian administration?                                 20

Q Write in brief on changes introduced by the British in Indian administrative system  12

Q  Discuss the nature of the Civil Service established by the British in India.         12

A  Judicial system - 

                The British laid the foundation of a new judicial structure in India that grew and evolved over a period of time. Many changes were made in it and it was subsequently applied to other parts of India. One important feature of the judicial system was it displayed tolerance towards the existing traditional and religious laws. The criminal courts did not completely abolish the Muslim criminal law but applied it in a modified form, so as to make it less harsh. Similarly, the civil courts also did not do away with the customary laws which had been followed by the local people.

     Another feature of the new judicial system was the enactment of laws and codification of old laws. The British created a new system of laws. They introduced regulations, codified the existing laws and the laws were now open to judicial interpretations and subsequent

amendment. In 1833, a Law Commission was appointed which prepared the Indian Penal Code, Civil laws and Criminal laws that were applicable throughout the country. There were different types of laws in India before 1833. There were the English Acts, Presidency Regulations, Hindu Law, Muslim Law, Customary Law etc. By this Act, the Governor-General was empowered to appoint the Law Commission to study, collect and codify laws in India. The two main theoretical principles of the judicial system were the notions of the Rule of Law and Equality before law.

      The Rule of Law meant that the administration was now to be carried out strictly according to certain laws. It defined the rights, privileges, and obligations of the people that were not according to the personal desires of the rulers. It also meant that in theory at least, that everyone was equal before the law and nobody was above law. Even the officials and those who supervised law were accountable to the same set of laws and were liable to be punished if found violating any law. The laws once formulated, could place restrictions on the actions of the rulers. However, the laws formulated and interpreted in such a way that they contained enough space for the oppression of the people. 

      Equality before the law meant that in theory, all the citizens irrespective of their caste, religion, status, etc. were equal in the eyes of the law. The concept of equality before the law did not apply to Europeans. There were separate courts and laws set up for them. In criminal cases, they could be tried only by the European Judges. In reality, total equality before law was not implemented. But it did bring about national equality among Indians.

Administrative System - The main aim of the British administration in India was the maintenance of law and order and the perpetuation of the British rule. The three main

pillars of the British administration in India were:-

#  the civil service

#  the Army, and

#  the Police

Civil Service - Assignment   

The Amy and the Police - 

The bulk of the Company's army consisted of Indian soldiers. In 1857 the Indians constituted about 86% of the total strength of the Company's army. The army played a crucial role in the expansion of British domination over the Indian rulers. However, after the conquest over India was over and after the elimination of rival foreign powers, the main task of the army was to keep India under subjection. A secondary task was to fight England's wars with the Russian, or the French or with Indian neighboring countries.

The third Pillar of the British administration was ‘Police’ which was created by Cornwallis. Till then, the function of the Police was performed-by Zamindar through their armed retainers. They were now stripped off their power, their armed retainers were disbanded and in its place, a police force was set up. This force was entirely at the command of the government of the East India Company. This force was grouped into Thanas, headed by a Daroga who was an Indian. These thanas were initially under the general supervision of the District Judge but later the post of District Superintendent of Police was created to head the police organization in the district. Finally, the police force was handed over to the civil service and the collector in the district also controlled the police. The main task of the police was to handle crime, maintain law and order and also to prevent conspiracy against the British rule. Later, in the 20th century, the police were employed in a big way to suppress the growing national movement.  

Civil Services -  The main job of the civil service was to apply the law and the collection of revenue. The term 'civil services' was used, for the first time by the East India Company mainly to demarcate its civilian employees from their military counterparts. The service was initially the only commercial in nature but was later transformed into public service. Initially, the method of recruitment in the Civil Services was through the system of patronage in the hands of the court of Directors who were free to nominate their sons and nephews for the services. The idea of 'competition' for recruitment (as against nomination practiced earlier) was introduced for the first time by the Charter Act of 1833. But it was to be a very limited competition and could be termed as nomination-cum-competition for recruitment. But gradually the demand for open Public competition started gaining ground. The Charter Act of 1853 ultimately took away the power of the court of Directors to make nominations and thus it was thrown open to competition. 

       The Chief Officer in the district was the collector who was initially responsible for the collection of revenue. He had the authority to decide all disputes related to the boundary and the rent. He was assisted by a Tehsildar who was an Indian. After the reforms of 1831, the offices of the Magistrate and the local chief of Police were also transferred to him. This gave him total authority in the district. Given the large size of some of the districts, a post of Deputy Collector, placed between the Collector and the Tehsildar in the hierarchy was also created after 1831. This was soon converted into an uncovenanted post which meant that experienced Indians could be employed as Deputy Collectors.

The Indian Civil Services in years to come developed into one of the most efficient and powerful civil services in the world. Its members played a very crucial role in the framing of the British Policies in India and also in maintaining and running the mighty British empire in India. The result was a network of laws applicable throughout the country and a vast administrative structure to implement the laws.

EHI - 5

Block 6
9th Part

Q  Discuss the Government of India Act of 1858.              12

Q  Discuss the nature of the Government of India Act, 1858. 12

Q  Explain the features and significance of the Government of India Act, 1858.       12

A   As the Charter Act of 1853 did not give the East India Company the right to govern India for another 20 years, it gave an opportunity to the Home Government to step in and take the responsibility in the place of the East India Company in India. This process was further hastened by the happenings of 1857 'Mutiny'. 

Features - 

Due to the Government of India Act of 1858 - 

# The Government of India passed from the hands of the English East India Company to the crown. The armed forces of the company were transferred to the crown.

#  The Board of control and court of Directors were abolished. Their place was taken by the Secretary of State of India and his India Council. They were to govern India in the name of her majesty. The Secretary of State was to sit in Parliament. He was a cabinet minister of England and as such was responsible to Parliament. Ultimate power over India remained with Parliament of England.

#  The Act created an India council of fifteen members. It was to advise the Secretary of State on matters, who had the power to overrule its decisions. Approval of the Council was essential in financial matters. Most of the members of the Indian Council were those who had retired from Indian services and as such has experience to work in India.

#  The Secretary of State was given the power of sending and receiving secret messages & despatches from the Governor-General without the necessity of communicating them to the India Council. The Secretary of State was to present a report periodically to the House of Commons on the moral and material progress of India.

#  The Government of India in its dealings with England was guided by the directions laid down by the Secretary of State. All matters concerning legislation, land revenue, public works, railways, jobs, new expenditure, and policies were rigidly scrutinized and controlled by the Secretary of State. The Rules and Regulations made in India by the secretary of state were to be laid on the table of the House of Commons.

Significance - 

The Governor-General became known from now as the Viceroy or Crown's representative. In matters of policy formation and its execution, the viceroy was reduced to a subordinate position in relation to the British Government. The Government of India was finally directly under the control of London.

Q  What are the differences between the Charter Act of 1833 and 1853?            12

Q  Write a note on the charter Act of 1833.                              12

A  Charter Act of 1833 - 

The British East India Company was to have only political functions. The President of the Board of-Control became the minister for Indian affairs. The Directors of the Company were to act as expert advisors of the President of the Board of Control. The Board of Control was given the authority to superintend, direct and control the affairs of the Company relating to the revenues of the Indian territory.

   The Governor-General of Bengal became the Governor-General of India. The Governor-General in Council was given the authority to superintend, direct and control the civil and military affairs of the Company. Bombay, Bengal, Madras and other regions were now under the complete control of the Governor-General in Council. 

The Central Government was to have complete control over raising of revenues and expenditure. The expenses of the Provincial Governments, creation of new offices, and obedience of all members of the Government of Bombay, Madras were under the strict control of the Central Government.

     By the Act of 1833, the Governor-General in Council was given the authority to legislate for the whole of the British territories in India. These laws were applicable to all persons, British or Indian, foreigners or others and to the servants of the Company. These laws were enforceable by all courts of law in India. The Act of 1833, added one more member to the Executive council of the Governor-General, the Law Member. The work of the law member was fully legislative. He had no vote in the Council and he was to attend meetings, on the invitation. 

         Bombay and Madras were to keep their separate armies under the Commanders-in-Chief. They were to be under the control of the Central Government. The Act provided for the codification of laws in India. There were different types of laws in India before 1833. There were the English Acts, Presidency Regulations, Hindu Law, Muslim Law, Customary Law, etc. By this Act, the Governor-General was empowered to appoint the Law Commission to study, collect and codify laws in India. The Indian Penal Code and Civil laws and Criminal Law were enacted by the efforts of the Indian Law Commission. 

        The Charter Act of 1833 made no provision to secure the nomination of Indians to the covenanted services of the company.

Charter Act of 1853 -    

By the Act of 1853, the separation of the executive and the legislative functions went a step further. There was a provision of including additional members to the council for the purpose of the legislation. 

The Law Member was made a full member of the Executive Council of the Governor-General. The consent of the Governor-General was made necessary for all legislative proposals. In this framework, the central legislature was completed. The Central Legislative Council was to consist of one representative from each of the Provinces. Measures related to the province were to be considered in the presence of representatives from that province. The Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Calcutta became the ex-officio member of the Central Legislative Council. Two more civilians might be nominated by the Governor-General, but this authority was never exercised.

The Council in its legislative capacity was to consist of 12 members. These included the Governor-General, Commander-in-Chief, four members of his council and six legislative members. 

All vacancies in India were to be filled in by competitive examinations. Lord Macaulay was appointed the President of the Committee. The number of Directors was reduced from 24 to 18. Six of them were to be nominated by the Crown. The Company was allowed to retain possessions of the Indian territories.   

Q  What were the main features of the Charter Act of 1813?  
          A        Inquiries into the Company's affairs were ordered before another renewal of the Charter which was due in 1813. In 1808, the House of Commons appointed a Committee to investigate into the affairs of the company. Its report on judicial and police arrangements was submitted in 1812. The government decided to allow British subjects access to India with their ships. 

The Home Government had specifically directed the Government of India not to follow the policy of conquests. However, the aggressive policies adopted by the company resulted in the acquisition of more territories in India. Lord Wellesley and Hastings continued to follow an imperialistic policy. The Company's power had spread to the whole of India except Punjab, Nepal, and Sind. Company requested for financial help from the Parliament due to overspending in wars and setback in trade. There was also a lot of agitation in Britain against the continuance of commercial monopoly granted to the East India Company. Independent merchants demanded the end of this policy. They wanted a share in the trade with India. The teachings of Adam Smith and his school during this time was dominating the politics of Britain. The Reformists, the Evangelicals, and the Traditionalists tried to influence British politics and policies towards British India. Their foremost interest was to safeguard the stability of the Empire.

The Act of 1813 renewed the Company's Charter for 20 years, but it asserted the

sovereignty of the British Crown over the territories held by the Company in India. The Company was allowed to have territorial possessions for another 20 years. The Company was deprived of its monopoly of trade with India. It was allowed to continue with its monopoly of trade with China for 20 years. The Indian trade was thrown open to all British merchants.  

Q  Pitt's India Act, 1784                                                    6

A  The purpose of the Pitt’s act was to remove the defects in the Regulating Act. The Company's public affairs and its administration in India were to come directly under the supreme control of the British Government. The right of the Company to territorial possessions was however not touched. The Act established a Board of Control whose function was to guide and control the work of the Court of Directors and the Government of India. They were to control all civil and military matters of the British territories in India.

     The Act established the principle that the government of India is placed under the Governor-General and a Council of three. The Act clearly stated that the Presidencies of Madras and Bombay were subordinate to the Presidency of Bengal in all matters of war, diplomatic relations and revenues. It helped in uniting India by giving supreme power to Governor-General over the Governors of Presidencies. The possessions of the Company in India came under the supremacy of the British Parliament. The Pitt’s Act laid the foundation of a centralized administration.

Q  Regulating Act of 1773                                                  6

A  The Regulating Act was passed by the British parliament to control the Company's Administration. Changes were made in the Constitution of the Court of Directors of the Company. It was required that it should submit to the Government all communications it has received from Bengal about civil and military affairs and revenues of India. In the field of executive government, the status of Governor of Bengal was raised to Governor-General.   The Governor-General in Council was given the authority to superintend and control the presidencies of Madras and Bombay in matters of war and peace. 

The Governors of Madras & Bombay were required to send information regularly to the Governor-General, regarding the government, revenues or interests of the Company. The Governor-General, in turn, was under the direct control of the Court of Directors and kept it fully informed about the affairs or interests of the Company. The Act provided for the establishment of a Supreme Court of Justice at Calcutta. Legislative powers were granted to the Governor-General and Council to make rules. 

Q  Analyse the changes in the colonial policy towards sati and widow-remarriage during the early 19th century.  12

Q  Discuss the British policy on sati and infanticide in India. 12

Q  Briefly discuss the British policy towards 'Sati' in the early 19th century.         12

A  Infanticide - The first traditional social evil custom which was suppressed by the British Indian government was the practice of infanticide. Female infanticide was prevalent in many parts of India. The difficulty and expenses incurred in marrying girls amongst the different communities in society gave rise to the practice of killing female infants by starvation or poisoning. Jonathan Duncan, the Resident of Benares was the first official who tried to curb this social evil. Instead of unilaterally abolishing infanticide by legislation Duncan met the local Rajkumars and convinced them that the killing of female infants went against the tenets of Hindu scriptures. As the female children were considered an economic liability to their families Duncan promised monetary compensation from the Government if the Rajkurnars abandoned this practice. 

        Around the same time, the Calcutta magistrates sent a letter to the Vice-President in-Council stating that infanticide had never enjoyed sanction under the Mughal or the British governments. They also mentioned that no public opposition was encountered when the police prevented infanticide. Ultimately a law banning infanticide was enacted as Regulation VI of 1802. The abolition of infanticide which appears to have been effective in Bengal did not result in any significant opposition by the public.

Sati - Sati practice was widespread in all the three Presidencies at the beginning of the 19th century. A large number of such incidents were reported from the lower districts of Bengal. Widow burning was practiced not only by the Brahmans but also by other castes. However, in proportion to the total population, the incidence of Sati was very limited. As early as 1795 Colebrook demonstrated that this practice wasn’t sanctioned in Vedic tradition. In the past, a number of Indian rulers including Akbar, Jahangir, Guru Amardas, the Maratha chief Ahalya-bai, the Peshwas, the King of Tanjore and the Portuguese in Goa tried to discourage this practice in their respective areas. 

        However, no sustained and systematic effort was made to suppress this inhuman practice until the 19th century. While the other European companies in Bengal had banned widow burning in their territories, the Calcutta Supreme Court disallowed it only in one part of the city. The British government was also reluctant and hesitated in using coercion to stop this practice. In 1819 and 1821 two Judges of the Supreme Court pleaded for immediate

suppression of Sati arguing that such a measure would not result in any serious public resentment. This plea was however rejected by the government. 

       While the government dragged its feet over this issue, some Indian social reformers led by Ram Mohan Roy spearheaded an agitation for the abolition of Sati. In 1818 he sent a petition to the government urging them to abolish this practice and counter the demand of orthodox Hindus who were against the abolition of Sati. A vigilance committee was organized to strictly implement the age restrictions on the practice of Sati. Rammohan engaged in a debate with the supporters of Sati and wrote pamphlets and newspaper articles to mobilize public opinion against these customs. He used his journal Sambad Kaumudi to further his campaign, with papers like Samachar Darpan supporting him.

       In spite of the mounting demand for its abolition in India and Britain parliament, the company authorities in England did not want to take any decision themselves as they feared public reaction. Finally, it was abolished in 1829 through legislation by Governor-General Bentinck. The abolition of widow-burning by the government did not result in any visible anger or resentment among the Indians. 

EHI - 5

8th Part

Q  Trace the emergence and growth of English education in India. What were its advantages and disadvantages?     20

A        By the Charter Act of 1813, the Company for the first time acknowledged state responsibility for the promotion of education in India. Some of the important points of the resolution that Bentinck announced in 1835 were as follows:

# Persian was abolished as the court language and was substituted by English.

# printing and publication of English books were made free and available at a comparatively low price.

# More fund was provided to support the English education, while there was curtailment in the fund for the promotion of oriental learning.

Auckland who came after Bentinck as the Governor-General also believed in the need for the promotion of English education in India. He recommended the opening of more English colleges in Dacca, Patna, Benares, Allahabad, Agra, Delhi, and Bareilly. The next major landmark in the development of English education in this period was the Wood's Despatch of 1854. Sir Charles Wood, the president of the Board of Control, in 1854 laid down the policy which became the guiding principle of the education program of the government of India. The major recommendations of the Despatch were as follows-

# the creation of a department of public instruction in each of the five provinces of the company's territory,

# the establishment of a university at Calcutta, Bombay a& Madras,

# the establishment of a network of graded schools-high schools, middle schools, and the elementary schools,

# the establishment of teachers training institutions,

# the promotion of vernacular schools,

# the introduction of a system of providing financial aids to the schools, etc.

In 1847 three universities were established in Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras. The establishment of universities & the opening of education departments in the provinces provided a basic structure to modern education in India. The Wood's Despatch provided the model for the further development of education in India. 

       Advantages -

The government promoted this system while neglecting the indigenous system of education in the 19th century. The spread of English education in India was a long process and before 1857 it is spread and depth were limited. The new education broadened the horizon of knowledge. The establishment of the printing press and easy availability of books removed the traditional barriers and made education accessible to more people. The ideas of the western thinkers influenced the younger generation of the indigenous society and they began to question the existing traditional values. A new spirit of rationalism developed. 

There were many Englishmen who tried to promote oriental learning but the Anglicists prevailed over such Orientalists. As a result of it, new schools and colleges were established to promote learning. New social, political and economic ideas emerged as a result of western education. But the education policy ignored scientific and technical education. Moreover, the beneficiary of this education was mainly the upper crust of society. 

     Disadvantages - 

The English education system totally ignored the importance of mass education. In the indigenous system, the elementary schools provided basic education to a wide section of society. But in the new education, the emphasis was to educate a selected few. 

The Anglicists idea of filtering down education from elites to masses did not work in practice. This system did not provide equal access to education to all and this led to an increase of the backwardness of socially backward castes and communities. The existing divisions in society widened.

Secondly, in spite of the advocacy of western science and technology, in the curriculum of schools and colleges, the emphasis was on western literature, philosophy, and humanities. Technology and natural science were neglected and without such knowledge, intellectual advancement, as well as economic development of a country, was hampered. So the transformation that came with English education was very limited in nature.

      

Q  What were the British ideas an Indian education?  12

A  The Orientalist argument was that there was generally a prejudice among Indians against European knowledge and science, so there might be a complete rejection of western knowledge. Some of them were also interested in exploring the classical tradition and

culture of this ancient civilization. They helped in the establishment of Educational institutions like the 'Calcutta Madrasa' by Warren Hastings (1 78 I), the Benares Sanskrit College' by Jonathan Duncan (1 7911 and the 'Asiatic Society of Bengal' by William Jones (1784). They were in favor of the continuation of the existing institutions of oriental learning and promotion of Indian classical tradition. 

   The Evangelicals, however, had no regard for Indian traditions, culture, etc. They had firm conviction in the superiority of Christian ideas and western institutions. They were highly critical of Indian religion and culture. In the end, all of these groups who were called 'Anglicists', believed that Indians were in a backward stage and Western education given through the English language alone was the remedy. 

There were many Englishmen who tried to promote oriental learning but the Anglicists prevailed over such Orientalists. As a result of it, new schools and colleges were established to promote learning. New social, political and economic ideas emerged as a result of western education. In spite of the advocacy of western science and technology, in the curriculum of schools and colleges, the emphasis was on western literature, philosophy, and humanities. Technology and natural science were neglected and without such knowledge, intellectual advancement, as well as economic development of a country, was hampered. Moreover, the beneficiary of this education was the selected few belonging to the upper crust of society. So the transformation that came with English education was very limited in nature. 

Q  What were the different trends of education policy in the 18th and 19th centuries? Did the Indians respond uniformly to this debate?  20

A  Firstly Indian system then English education system 

Second question - 

The response of Indians to this debate over education policy was a mixed one. Ram Mohan Roy and other social reformers favored the introduction of Western education. They believed that it would help Indians to assimilate the knowledge of western science, rationalism, new ideas, and literature. This would help in the regeneration of society and thus the country as a whole. Some other people believed that getting Western education through the English language would help them in getting jobs and coming close to the ruling elite. So they were in support of Western education. In opposition to this, there were many conservatives who were against the introduction of western education in India. They were staunch supporters of Indian classical language, culture and the indigenous system of education. They had the apprehension that the introduction of Western education would lead to the collapse of indigenous society and culture.

Q  Discuss the impact of Western ideas on Indian minds.        12

Q  Discuss the impact of western knowledge on Indian thinking.  12

A  Western education and intellectual discourse was a formidable force that resulted in the making of the new modern Indian culture and mentality in the nineteenth century. The new or renaissance mentality was conspicuously different from that of the Mughal era. The newly emerged nineteenth-century mentality has the components of both secular and religion which were aimed at the combination/synthesis of tradition and modernity. The result was a new point of view, a new set of values that gave importance to both religion, reform as well as secular literary expression. 

The new mood was reflected in the literature that portrayed emotional experiences, the triumph of the human spirit, changing the nature of the relationship between man and woman. The notions of justice and reason were widely accepted. The contemporary intellectuals and ideologues advocated for a more just & rational society. The awakening or renaissance started in Bengal at the beginning of the nineteenth century but spread elsewhere later.

The Indian critical awakening was not just a secular cultural phenomenon but was also a religious reform movement in more than one way. The emerging ethos of the renaissance was given an institutional shape for the first time in the form of the establishment of Hindu College of Calcutta(1817). 

The educated Indians began to appreciate that, Europe had conquered the world of knowledge because of its stress on reasoning. Europe thus infected India with the curiosity to discover the inner workings of all phenomena based on observations and experiments. The ideas of the western thinkers influenced the younger generation of the indigenous society and they began to question the existing traditional values. A new spirit of rationalism developed. The reason was allied to progress. Thereafter conscience was extended from the religious sphere to the social protest. The development of social protest was evident in the proliferation of plays after the Mutiny- Nil Darpan, Jamindar Darpan, etc. The sphere of protest further extended as the intellectuals guided by conscience began to question the entire foundation of traditional society and gave their support to political nationalism. The influence of the new education was rapid and profound. It tried to purge Indian society of outdated ritual, glaring inequalities and grievous disabilities imposed on women. 

Q  New Rationalism                                                    6

A  The educated Indians began to appreciate that, Europe had conquered the world of knowledge because of its stress on reasoning. Europe thus infected India with the curiosity to discover the inner workings of all phenomena based on observations and experiments. The ideas of the western thinkers influenced the younger generation of the indigenous society and they began to question the existing traditional values. A new spirit of rationalism developed. The reason was allied to progress. Thereafter conscience was extended from the religious sphere to the social protest. The development of social protest was evident in the proliferation of plays after the Mutiny- Nil Darpan, Jamindar Darpan, etc. The sphere of protest further extended as the intellectuals guided by conscience began to question the entire foundation of traditional society and gave their support to political nationalism. The influence of the new education was rapid and profound. It tried to purge Indian society of outdated ritual, glaring inequalities and grievous disabilities imposed on women. 

Q  Romanticism                                                           6

A  Romanticism in literature like rationality was the second most distinguishing feature that was part of the modern Indian Renaissance. The popularity, appeal, and accessibility of Western literature had a profound impact on indigenous literary scene. The works of Walter Scott, George Elliot, etc. made a powerful impact on the Indian minds. This was evident in both the form and content of vernacular literature emerged during that time in India. Rise of prose forms- fiction, drama, biography, history, essays, and literary criticism were its consequences. 

The new mood was reflected in literature which showed emotional experiences, human spirit, changing the nature of the relationship between man and woman. An example is Bankim's Kapalkundala. The great historical novels of R.C. Dutta- Maharashtra Prabhat (1878) and Rajput Jivana Sandhya (1879) were other such examples. From 1903 onwards, a new wave started with Tagore's Chokher Bali that established the social and psychological themes as the dominant trend.

Q  William Jones                                                         6

A      William Jones was an English Jurist who committed himself to rediscover India. Jones on coming to India realized that in order to understand India the individual initiatives were not enough. He decided to combine scientific study with the hard work and knowledge of a group of dedicated individuals. It was with this vision, he helped in the establishment of the Asiatic Society of Calcutta in 1784. The Society was to unearth the knowledge about Asia from within and outside Asia. This society was engaged in studying India from within close quarters of its social, religious, linguistic & political aspects. 

       The Asiatic Society contributed in a major way by translating from Persian and Sanskrit works of Grammar, Puranas and the writings of Kalidasa. Secondly, the members of the Asiatic Society researched and published a large number of articles on Indian society and religion. Thus, William Jones contributed in a major way in spreading the romantic fascination of India and her culture throughout Europe.