FST -1

21st Part 

Q.  How the application of scientific knowledge has made agriculture possible in arid zones, drylands, and hills?

A.  The advancements in our scientific knowledge have now enabled us to practice agriculture in arid zones, drylands, and hills.

 Arid Zones  - The chief arid areas of our country are confined to Rajasthan, Gujarat, Haryana, Karnataka, and Ladakh. They cover an area of about 400,000 square kilometers. Of this, Ladakh has a cold desert spread over 70,000 square kilometers.

           Here, aridity and low temperature limit the agricultural season to about five months in a year. Therefore, crops that require a short period to mature and can withstand severe cold are grown. These are some cereals, oil seeds and fodder crops. In the hot desert regions, of Rajasthan, Gujarat, and Haryana, there is an abundance of sunshine which causes high rate of evaporation. Many of these areas have adequate reserves of ground-water which is scientifically tapped for irrigation. In the arid zone fruit trees like ber and pomegranate and fuel-wood yielding trees like Acacia (Kikar), Prosopis (Mosquite) and Eucalyptus (Safeda) are grown. In such areas, large scale planting of shelter-belts minimizes soil erosion caused by wind. It also helps in the establishment of pastures and grazing lands. Later on, this land is used for growing pearlmillet and mungbean.

Dry Lands - Drylands constitute about 74% of our cultivated lands and produce about 42% of our food. These are entirely rain-dependent and crop fortunes are closely linked to the vagaries of the monsoon. Sometimes rains may set in very early or very late or may come on time but withdraw too soon. There may also be large breaks between showers. When evaporation and loss of water by seeping in the soil exceeds rainfall, these lands are plagued by drought, scarcity of drinking water and thus crop failure. Rain water is collected in ponds to support agriculture. In Dry lands with red soil, deep ploughing helps in conserving water while In black soils, sowing two crops at a time is possible with surface drainage and good water management. Leaves and crop residues, when mixed with soil improve its texture, and water holding capacity. Crops like pigeonpea and castor that have deep roots, are cultivated in these regions which improves the physical condition of the soil further, as the roots of these crops add organic matter. Varieties of sorghum, millets, sunflower, safflower, mustard, groundnut, various pulses and cotton are available which grow within a shorter time withstanding scarcity of water and also diversifying crops in dry lands. A variety of crops and cropping patterns allow the farmer to make a proper choice of what to grow in different climates and soil types.

Hills - Based on a study of the slope and depth of the soil, and availability of water, scientists have devised an interesting agricultural system that requires low inputs and puts the land to most productive use without disturbing the ecosystem. Under this system, the upper reaches of the hills are devoted to forestry. The next zone is developed for growing fruit trees, perennial fodder grass and legumes. The roots of legumes fix nitrogen and improve the soil. In the third zone, a mix of crops are raised on terraces constructed with low-cost implements. Earthen dams are constructed with locally available material. These collect enough water to be utilized for irrigation.

Q.  Make a table showing the protein and energy contents of 10 common food. 

A.   Energy and Protein Contents of Some Common Foods

Foodstuffs                 Energy (Cal/100g)                       Proteins (g)

Cereals                              340                                         10-13

Pulses and Legumes         345                                         20-25

Soyabean                          430                                           43

Milk-Buffalo                    120                                           4.3

Cow                                  70                                            3.2

Paneer                              264                                          18.3

Egg                                  170                                           13.3

Potatoes                            95                                            1.6

Meat                                200                                           18.5

Fish                                 100                                           14.9

Q.  Deliberate upon the recent technological developments in the energy sector giving appropriate examples.

A.  The energy sources available in India are fossil fuels (like lignite, coal, and petroleum) the sun, wind, geothermal energy (for example, hot springs) water (hydro-electric power). The demand for energy doubles every 14 years and is taken as one of the indicators of development of a country. Many technological developments are shaping the energy sector in a new way by using technology to harness the energy of resources available which was not earlier possible. Some of these sources of energy are- 

Solar Energy - With the help of photocells, solar energy is harnessed. Solar energy is used directly to give us hot water during winter or run a refrigerator. It is also used for heating rooms in colder regions. Photocells are used to produce electricity for driving vehicles and illumination of streets. In a desert like Rajasthan, the earth's surface receives solar energy at the rate of 200 watts per square meter per hour. Since this feature of using solar energy is that it can be generated where needed. Solar cookers are being used in many homes to cook food now. 

Wind Energy - Like solar energy, wind flow can also be harnessed to obtain mechanical energy for fetching water from the wells or from rivers. Once the windmill is turning due to the force of the wind, it may as well run a generator to get electrical energy. In the coastal and hilly regions, where the wind blows at high speed, a windmill can be used for the supply of electricity to a small town.

Wave and tidal energy -  Waves and tides are other sources of energy which is perpetual and can be converted into electric energy, particularly where seawater can move into a narrow cut, such as is provided naturally where rivers flow into the sea. The energy carried is used in India's hilly regions when a wheel with pedals can be made to turn when it is put in a fast-flowing stream. Flour mills of small size built on this principle were used in Kashmir. Here a natural or artificial water fall is made to turn turbine blades which when rotates generates electricity. Large hydroelectric power stations work on the same principle for generating electricity.

Geothermal Energy -

Hot water and super heated steam of hot springs are a natural phenomenon and is used to generate electricity. In our country, there arc 46 hydrothermal areas where the temperature of the spring water exceeds 150°C. These hot springs can be used to generate electricity for heating homes, or glass-houses to prow vegetables.

Atomic energy -

In view of the fast depletion of our non-renewable resources like coal and petroleum, and because of pollution which power stations burning coal causes efforts are underway to construct Atomic reactors to produce electricity. With the energy of the atom controlled in nuclear fission reaction, the energy and heat produced during the bombardment of atoms of U235 is channelized for electricity generation. The device used for this purpose is called an atomic reactor. Nuclear reactors produce heat, which is commonly used to raise steam, which rotates turbines and thus generates electric power. It is estimated that 1 kg of natural uranium generates energy equal to that produced by 35,000 kg of coal. Thus the production of energy from nuclear fuel like uranium is efficient, and since great loads of coal or diesel are not consumed daily this energy is convenient. 

Biogas -

Cattle dung for the production of biogas which is used for cooking. Water weeds like water hyacinth, water lettuce, Salvinia, hydrilla, duckweeds, and algae are found to be a useful supplement to cattle dung. Biogas can be used not only as cooking gas, it can also be used to raise steam, which can be used for running engines or machines in the factories or for running turbines to generate electricity. It has been found that large biogas plants can supply the needs of a number of families or even small villages. What is left over after generating the gas, can be used as manure. Hence this is also an economical way of getting more energy. Great efforts are being made to install tens of thousands of biogas plants in rural areas as it is one of the efficient ways of generating electricity.

Q.  ‘Science and technology do not exist independent of the society, its culture and value system. They are part of the socio-economic and political framework of a given society’. Analyze this statement by giving suitable examples. 

A.   As science and technology provide all the necessities as well as many of the ideas that hold our society together, society itself provides the environment and the atmosphere for science and technology to either grow fast or stagnate or even decay. Science and technology do not exist independent of the society, its culture and the value system. They are a part of the socio-economic and political framework of a given society. Motivation for the practical application of science and, hence, its growth and use comes from the economic needs of the society. The economic planning and policy of a society determine its social programmes and the purposes and goals of society's production activity, which in turn provides the incentive for scientific growth. However, answers to questions like what kind of economic policy will be pursued, whether the social programmes will be implemented, and to what extent, depends on the political and social organization of a society. Thus, science and technology can be more directly influenced by the general policies and social structure of a society. For example, when economic growth is purely determined by market demands, artificial demands for goods are created by advertising, even though there is no pressing need for them.
            Ideas of people are sought to be moulded by propaganda carried on by radio or television or even by education. The competition to produce more goods, increase profits or the desire to provide fancy goods to an influential section of population results in one kind of development of science and technology. On the other hand, if society desires and plans to improve rural life or give priority to public health or provide a certain level of nutrition to all citizens, the tasks and consequent development of science and technology should follow a different path. Still another example is the question of spending money on weapon of offense or defense that naturally affects science and technology.
             It is known that the world today is annually spending Rs. 15 lakh crores on weapons and their development. This not only takes away money needed to feed, clothe or provide health and shelter to people, but it also prevents the development of science and technology for constructive purposes. We can conclude that science and technology are part and parcel of a larger social system, whose other components are industry, agriculture, trade, distribution of goods, communication, education, government, and administration, etc. 
            Science and technology cannot be advanced by viewing them in isolation. The whole social, economic and political system will have to work in unison so that all round advancement can take place. In the end, we can say that science influences the entire social edifice, the material as well as ideological, and in turn science itself is influenced by society and its objectives. Before any project is taken up, its positive, as well as negative aspects, the effect it will have on human beings and the environment, must be properly evaluated. "Social good" must have primacy in the overall planning and the use to which science and technology is put.

FST -1

20th Part

Q.  Deliberate upon the recent technological developments in the energy sector giving appropriate examples.

A.  The energy sources available in India are fossil fuels (like lignite, coal, and petroleum) the sun, wind, geothermal energy (for example, hot springs) water (hydro-electric power). The demand for energy doubles every 14 years and is taken as one of the indicators of development of a country. Many technological developments are shaping the energy sector in a new way by using technology to harness the energy of resources available which was not earlier possible. Some of these sources of energy are- 

Solar Energy - With the help of photocells, solar energy is harnessed. Solar energy is used directly to give us hot water during winter or run a refrigerator. It is also used for heating rooms in colder regions. Photocells are used to produce electricity for driving vehicles and illumination of streets. In a desert-like Rajasthan, the earth's surface receives solar energy at the rate of 200 watts per square meter per hour. Since this feature of using solar energy is that it can be generated where needed. Solar cookers are being used in many homes to cook food now. 

Wind Energy - Like solar energy, wind flow can also be harnessed to obtain mechanical energy for fetching water from the wells or from rivers. Once the windmill is turning due to the force of the wind, it may as well run a generator to get electrical energy. In the coastal and hilly regions, where the wind blows at high speed, a windmill can be used for the supply of electricity to a small town.

Wave and tidal energy -  Waves and tides are another sources of energy which is perpetual and can be converted into electric energy, particularly where sea water can move into a narrow cut, such as is provided naturally where rivers flow into the sea. The energy carried is used in India's hilly regions when a wheel with pedals can be made to turn when it is put in a fast-flowing stream. Flour mills of small size built on this principle were used in Kashmir. Here a natural or artificial water fall is made to turn turbine blades which when rotates generates electricity. Large hydroelectric power stations work on the same principle for generating electricity.

Geothermal Energy -

Hot water and superheated steam of hot springs are a natural phenomenon and is used to generate electricity. In our country, there arc 46 hydrothermal areas where the temperature of the spring water exceeds 150°C. These hot springs can be used to generate electricity for heating homes, or glass-houses to prow vegetables.

Atomic energy -

In view of the fast depletion of our non-renewable resources like coal and petroleum, and because of pollution which power stations burning coal causes efforts are underway to construct Atomic reactors to produce electricity. With the energy of the atom controlled in nuclear fission reaction, the energy and heat produced during the bombardment of atoms of U235 is channelized for electricity generation. The device used for this purpose is called an atomic reactor. Nuclear reactors produce heat, which is commonly used to raise steam, which rotates turbines and thus generates electric power. It is estimated that 1 kg of natural uranium generates energy equal to that produced by 35,000 kg of coal. Thus the production of energy from nuclear fuel like uranium is efficient, and since great loads of coal or diesel are not consumed daily this energy is convenient. 

Biogas -

Cattle dung for the production of biogas which is used for cooking. Water weeds like water hyacinth, water lettuce, Salvinia, hydrilla, duck weeds, and algae are found to be a useful supplement to cattle dung. Biogas can be used not only as cooking gas, but it can also be used to raise steam, which can be used for running engines or machines in the factories or for running turbines to generate electricity. It has been found that large biogas plants can supply the needs of a number of families or even small villages. What is left over after generating the gas, can be used as manure. Hence this is also an economical way of getting more energy. Great efforts are being made to install tens of thousands of biogas plants in rural areas as it is one of the efficient ways of generating electricity.

Q.  ‘Science and technology do not exist independent of the society, its culture and value system. They are part of the socio-economic and political framework of a given society’. Analyze this statement by giving suitable examples. 

A.   As science and technology provide all the necessities as well as many of the ideas that hold our society together, society itself provides the environment and the atmosphere for science and technology to either grow fast or stagnate or even decay. Science and technology do not exist independent of the society, its culture and the value system. They are a part of the socio-economic and political framework of a given society. The motivation for the practical application of science and, hence, its growth and use comes from the economic needs of society. The economic planning and policy of a society determine its social programmes and the purposes and goals of society's production activity, which in turn provides the incentive for scientific growth. However, answers to questions like what kind of economic policy will be pursued, whether the social programmes will be implemented, and to what extent, depends on the political and social organization of a society. Thus, science and technology can be more directly influenced by the general policies and social structure of a society. For example, when economic growth is purely determined by market demands, artificial demands for goods are created by advertising, even though there is no pressing need for them. Ideas of people are sought to be molded by propaganda carried on by radio or television or even by education. The competition to produce more goods, increase profits or the desire to provide fancy goods to an influential section of population results in one kind of development of science and technology. On the other hand, if society desires and plans to improve rural life or give priority to public health or provide a certain level of nutrition to all citizens, the tasks and consequent development of science and technology should follow a different path. Still another example is the question of spending money on a weapon of offense or defense that naturally affects science and technology. It is known that the world today is annually spending Rs. 15 lakh crores on weapons and their development. This not only takes away money needed to feed, clothe or provide health and shelter to people, but it also prevents the development of science and technology for constructive purposes. We can conclude that science and technology are part and parcel of a larger social system, whose other components are industry, agriculture, trade, distribution of goods, communication, education, government and administration etc. Science and technology cannot be advanced by viewing them in isolation. The whole social, economic and political system will have to work in unison so that all-round advancement can take place. In the end, we can say that science influences the entire social edifice, the material as well as ideological, and in turn science itself is influenced by society and its objectives.

            Before any project is taken up, its positive, as well as negative aspects, the effect it will have on human beings and the environment, must be properly evaluated. "Social good" must have primacy in the overall planning and the use to which science and

technology is put.

Q.  (a) Describe the various ways by which the human body battles against germs.

(b) How does vaccination protect us from disease?       

A.  First of all the skin and the mucous membranes of our body help us to keep germs out of our body. There are glands in the skin which produces oily substances to provide a protective cover to the surface of the skin. Perspiration helps us to eliminate certain waste and germs out of the skin. Perspiration also contains a special chemical known as lysozyme which destroys the germs. lysozyme is also found in tears, saliva, nasal secretion and tissue fluids. Many types of germs which happens to reach our stomach are destroyed by strongly acidic stomach juices. 

         Apart from this, our body has a potent defence system called the immune system and it is spread throughout the body. The immune system is in the form of special cells called white blood cells which circulate throughout the body along with blood. The white blood cell are of different types and fight the invader germs in variety of ways. During any kind of infection, there is an automatic increase in WBC,  and they are produced in large numbers. 

       When germs attack over the body, special types of WBC migrate to the infected site and destroy the invader germs by engulfing them. These cells are called engulfing cells. Another kind of WBC produces a chemical weapon called antibodies that attack toxic substances to make them ineffective. These antibodies also tag the invading germs so that they can be easily recognized by engulfing cells. Yet another type of WBC work as killer cells and directly destroy the invader or the infected body cell. Thus the whole body goes into action mode as soon as disease germs enter the body .

            Vaccination is a process of inducing artificial immunization. Through vaccination, antibodies are artificially inserted into the weak body, where the body is fighting invading germs and the immune system has weakened. Thus through vaccination antibodies are entered into the body that to strengthen the defense mechanism and produce WBC to combat that particular infection. In this way, vaccination helps in strengthening the immune system and fighting the invading germs or the infection. 

Q.  Name one disease each spread by air, water, food, and contact.  
A.  Air - Common cold, Leprosy, Measles

      Water - Cholera , Typhoid, Diarrhoea, Dysentry

      Food - Typhoid, Bacillary dysentery

      Contact - Syphilis, Gonorrhea 

Q.  What are infectious diseases? Name any two diseases caused by bacteria and give their symptoms and preventions also.    

A. Infectious diseases are those diseases that are caused by germs or microbes and which move from one person to another. Microbes are minute organisms that cannot be seen with the naked eye. Some of them can be seen with the help of an ordinary microscope while others are so small that they can be seen under very special microscopes. Some of the infectious diseases are also caused by worms.

Typhoid is spread through bacteria which is present on contaminated food or is served by a person who hasn't washed his hands after defecation or urination etc

1.  Typhoid: An infection caused by bacteria. It is caused mostly due to contaminated water and outside food. 

Symptoms:  Fever, weakness, vomiting, etc.

Prevention: By properly washing hands before and after eating, drinking clean water, avoid eating spoil food exposed to flies or contaminated food served by an infected person or cooked in unhygienic place.

2.  Dysentery: An intestinal infection affecting both children and adults. It is caused by bacteria. 

Symptoms: Severe pain in the abdomen, loose motions, weakness, and fever.

Prevention: By properly washing hands before and after eating, drinking clean water, avoid eating spoil food exposed to flies or contaminated food served by an infected person or cooked in unhygienic place.By maintaining personal hygiene.

3. Leprosy: It is an infection caused by bacteria. It is spread from person to person by touch in most cases.

Symptoms: Inflammation, itching Scars, loss of appendages of hands, etc.

Prevention: Since it is infectious, maintain a distance from infected person & personal hygiene. 

Q.  List various modes of spread of diseases. Discuss any two of these modes along with methods of prevention.    

A.  The different modes of spread of diseases are air water food contact insects and other carriers.

Air 

A number of diseases are caused due to bacteria and viruses that are carried in the air. When an infected person sneezes or coughs, there is a noticeable spray of drops. These tiny droplets of liquid contain germs that can remain afloat in the air for a very long time. If another person is standing by he is likely to breathe in quite a lot of these germs and thus get infected. One sick person, therefore, can infect a lot of others. Common cold, leprosy spread through this manner. These diseases spread easily in damp closed spaces. 

Prevention

Air can be disinfected by mechanical means, ultraviolet radiation, chemical vapour or special filters for air coming into rooms. In offices or residential places, ventilation helps to replace polluted air. The quality of incoming air with regard to temperature, humidity, and purity is also an integral part of the ventilation which ultimately provides an environment for comfort and is free from the risk of infection. Green plants also purify air. Green Belt area should be increased to enhance the self-cleaning power of the environment. Green plants around the residential complexes, offices should be increased as they improve the quality of air by purifying it. 

Water

Diseases like Cholera, typhoid, dysentery spread through water. Germs of these diseases multiply in the gut of the infected person and come out in the faeces. Eggs of worms also come out in the faeces.  If the infected faeces and Urine are passed in an open field, germs or eggs are carried to the source of local water supply such as pounds or rivers. Bathing or washing of utensils in such water or drinking it, can infect other people. Sometimes in slum areas, the toilets are too close to hand pumps and thus drinking water becomes a source of disease. People living in such areas are the ones who suffer most from the water borne diseases. The other reason for the spread of the diseases is negligence in personal hygiene by infected person. If the infected person do not wash their hands carefully after defecation or urination, the hands are likely to carry germs which will be transferred to other objects like food utensils or furniture. When these objects are touched by a healthy person the germs find their way to him.

Precaution

Drinking water must be free of disease-causing agents or harmful chemicals. Proper disposal of human excreta is an essential requirement of Community Health. At home drinking water can be made safe by filtration and boiling. Filtration removes most of the suspended impurities, while disease-causing microbes are killed by boiling. Also, handpumps should be deep enough so that they can draw naturally filtered water.

Q.  Explain the term artificial intelligence. 

A. Normal computers can perform complicated calculations and solve logical problems only solve logical problems only because they are given a detailed program for action for action. Artificial intelligence means computers which can firstly learn the rules of any specific Signal Processing, and then apply them to solve the related problem on their own. These computers having artificial intelligence can do specific jobs like interpreting data, taking  photographs of the earth taken from spacecraft to determine the position of airfields missile launching sites or  Ships moving on the high seas. Artificial intelligence is the ability of a computer system to produce an output that seems to come from an intelligent human being.

Q.  Methodology of reward and punishment helps in learning process. Discuss. 

A.      Reward and punishment is a form of learning. For example, if one has a pet puppy and he wants to train it to sit down. the puppy would not understand the words sit down as the puppy doesn't understand the language, but if while giving the command you physically make him sit and give him a biscuit then on the experience being repeated few times the puppy will learn to obey the command. Thus the puppy will associate the sound of the command to sit, with the reward of a biscuit. After training, the puppy will sit down as soon as he is given the command sit, even if he is not given any reward. In some situations, the punishment would also lead to the same result.

We learn a lot of things through the reward and punishment method for example when a baby is hungry he cries, which attracts the attention of the mother and the baby is given milk. The child will soon learn the trick. Similarly, in school when a student in the maths class solve a problem correctly, He receives praise by the teacher. Next time he will approach other maths problems with greater zeal so as to get the teachers approval and praise.  The principle of reward and punishment is used in the educational field extensively because teachers in school are constantly encouraging or rewarding good performance or good actions and discouraging or punishing poor performance of activities. The same principle is used in the society in public organizations, bonus for productivity in a factory or cut in wages if there is low production are examples of reward and punishment. A similar method is employed by the traffic police as it imposed fine on motorists if they cross a red line, or by parents who do not allow the children to watch television if the homework is not done are other such examples.

Q.  Use examples to explain the roles of memory, reasoning, analysis, and synthesis in the learning process. 

Q.  Cognitive learning

A. Four things play the main role in learning, these are the memory, reasoning, analysis, and synthesis.

Memory - memory is very important because it is the process by which we hold information in our mind, but mear memory is not enough. One may memorize whole books and yet couldn't understand anything. The information carried by memory has to be subjected to reasoning to understand fully.

Reasoning - reasoning allows us to see the connection between different bits of information or different ideas and concepts. For example, the rising of the sun and daylight, for the gathering of clouds and rain that might follow the cause and effect relationship also explained in terms of reasoning. When we apply reasoning we can make more sense of the information given to us and reach some conclusions. For example, the various facts about murder, on the basis of reasoning and analysis, may indicate exactly how it could have taken place, or who did it. 

Analysis - analysis is thus considered to be a higher mental activity than memory or reasoning.  However ultimately information from many areas of analysis is to be combined to make a whole picture. The process is first to take things apart: reason and analyze and then to put them together, or synthesize, in order to fully understand something. 

‌Synthesis -  synthesis can be called a higher level of mental activity then even analysis. This doesn't mean that all this process takes place separately or even one after another. In the mind, reasoning, analysis and synthesis go on forward and backward until some conclusion or understanding emerges. This kind of learning which is fairly complicated and involved thought process is called cognitive learning.  Every student experiences it, and all of us acquire knowledge about all our lives in this cognitive learning manner.

FST -1

19th Part

Q.  Write a detailed account of the origin of agriculture and civilization.

A.  After the stone age, the next period in the evolution of human society is known as the Bronze Age, the period when agriculture flourished and gave a major impetus to the spread of civilization in different parts of the world.

      Agriculture resulted from the understanding that plants could be grown from seeds and that the crops had some relation to the seasons. And, probably, the availability of water helped in this process. Cultivation led to permanent or semi-permanent settlements around regions that were climatically and soil-wise suitable for crop production. These settlements grew into villages, with some community life and leisure. The settlements emerged in regions that are most suitable for cultivation. Thus in this period, from about 4000 B.C. to 1500 B.C., the four great civilizations of Egypt, Mesopotamia, India, and China came into existence in the wide river valleys of the Nile, the Tigris and the Euphrates, the Indus, and the Hwang Ho. These civilizations further prospered as the people of those times understood the advantage afforded by the river for food production. They also realized that if the river could be systematically used through natural and artificial irrigation, food production could be increased manifold. 

          These civilizations further engaged in trade among themselves and with each other. For Barter trade, some places were identified as meeting places for the exchange of goods. Convenient sites were chosen for displaying goods and exchanging grain for cloth or spices or shopping for better tools and implements made by expert artisans. Evidence suggests that cities were founded by bringing together the population of several villages. The growth of cities led to the rise of an administrative class who could organize and coordinate production and exchange but did not take part in it directly. 

The civilization further progressed as the growth of cities was helped by the new mode of production. The man started producing much more than he could consume locally. Therefore. all people in agricultural Societies did not have to be agriculturists. They could produce other useful goods and even excel in music or dance. The surplus could be used to support craftsmen who made the agricultural implements and storage vessels, masons who built shelters, wheel-wrights who made pottery, and others who made carts. There were still others who worked as administrators and priests, and who were not directly involved in the process of production. These groups of people came to live in the cities. The surplus was transported by land, river, sea in exchange for other necessities of life and even luxury goods. This provided tremendous impetus for the development of transport, such as rafts, boats and small ships, which brought about new dimensions of trade, cultural contact, and exchange of techniques and science among different societies.

Q.  What have been the impediments of the growth of science in India?

A.  Till the middle of the 16th century, Indian science was at the same level as science anywhere else in the world. But, then European science took big strides forward and left Indian science way behind in the period that followed. Some of the impediments of growth of science in India afterward were - 

          One of the reason was the satisfaction in the social structure. In spite of periodic wars between the rulers of various regions and states in the country, there was very considerable stability in Indian society. The population was small, the land was fertile and even from small land holdings, Indian peasants were able to meet the requirements of subsistence. They could feed and clothe themselves. The overall satisfaction among the masses didn’t create the conditions for innovations or to question and to think beyond the prevalent scientific methods. 

        The second reason was religious orthodoxy. The grip of religion on the society particularly in the rural areas, and the existence and growing rigidity of the caste system prevalent in the society contributed to the decline of scientific progress in the society. People accepted their fate as god’s will and destiny. Such thinking did not allow pressures to build up for either enhancing production through technological innovation, or to change the society.

        Another reason was the lack of intellectual atmosphere during that time. Those who worked with their hands did not contribute to the stock of knowledge. And those who possessed even out-dated knowledge never had to test it on the touchstone of practice. Either the kingdoms fought wars or settled down to long periods of peace. It seems natural to think that in such a society there was no clamor to develop new products or new processes. Social stability and stagnation can easily go hand in hand. The rich had no need for change, the poor had no power to bring about change. 

         There was large scale illiteracy among the masses in India during that period. Education was mostly limited to religious teaching and the intellectual atmosphere was not in favor of challenging the established ways-of thinking. There was a complete lack of printed books. Rulers didn’t understand enriching people's lives on a large scale through the availability of cheaper books. This was in contrast to the sixteenth century Europe where the availability of printed word greatly helped the spread of knowledge that created a wider and deeper impact for bringing about social change. Thus a traditional, hierarchical society with a low level of discontent and conservatism promoted religion made scientific advance difficult in India. 

Q.  Discuss the salient aspects of the structure of the Sun and the various activities going on in it. 

A.  Sun is a star on which the whole Solar system depends. Nuclear reactions in the Sun convert about four hundred million tons of hydrogen into helium every second. The mass of the Sun is about 2 X 10^33 grams and the average density of the Sun, i.e. its mass per unit volume is about 1.4 g/cm3. It rotates about its axis once every 25 days. From time to time dark patches appear on the surface of the Sun, usually in pairs or in groups. These dark patches are called sunspots. Their movement is an indication of the Sun's rotation. Sunspot is a region on the surface of the Sun that consists of gases almost 1000*C cooler than those surrounding the area. The number of sunspots increases and decreases in a cycle every 11 years. 

Layers of the Sun - The Sun's body is made up of several layers. The layer that forms the visible surface of the Sun is called the photosphere. The photosphere is the area that demarcates the body of the Sun and its atmosphere. The temperature of the photosphere is about 6000°C. The innermost layer of the Sun is its core where its energy is produced through nuclear reactions. Like the Sun's body, the solar atmosphere too has several layers. The outermost layer of the Sun's atmosphere is called the corona which is visible during total Solar eclipse. The corona extends all the way up to the Earth's orbit and even beyond.

Solar Wind and Solar Flare - Streams of electrons and protons continuously flow out from the Sun's atmosphere and travel across the Solar System. This rapidly moving stream of charged particles is called the solar wind. About one million ton of material is removed every second from the Sun in the form of the solar wind. These charged particles react with the atoms of the Earth's atmosphere to produce northern lights, 'aurora borealis' at the North Pole and southern lights, 'aurora australis' at the South pole. The solar flare represents a tremendous release of energy in a very short time. Usually, it occurs in the neighborhood of a sunspot. There is a sudden brightening accompanied by a violent outflow of energy in the form of light, Radiowaves, X-rays and solar material like electrons and protons.

Q.  Describe the modern methods employed for the exploration of natural resources.

A.  The modern methods employed for the exploration of natural resources is Remote sensing and Resource mapping. 

1. Remote Sensing - The exploration is done by the analysis of photographs taken from air or spacecraft (satellites) and other data supplied by the sensors mounted on these vehicle by a method called' remote sensing'.

Remote Sensing - 

Remote sensing is a method of collecting information about ground objects like soil, water, vegetation, and minerals, from a remote place, such as an aircraft or a satellite. This technique not only enables us to locate various resources but also helps us to know about their quantity and quality. The simplest device could be a camera carried by an aeroplane to photograph large areas of land systematically. Television cameras could be mounted on satellites and they could take pictures showing details of clouds, water, forests or buildings on the earth. Both these are optical methods of remote sensing because visible light is used by the cameras. But one could send out radio waves from the satellites and observe how they are reflected or absorbed on the surface of the earth. Usually, radio waves of wavelengths as small as a few centimeters called 'microwaves', are used for such studies, because these waves penetrate through clouds and their reflections also go through the clouds to reach the satellite. Similarly, infra-red signals can be sent from the satellite and reflections studied to reveal the nature of the reflecting surface.

For water resources - Radio waves of the shortest known wavelengths are called 'gamma rays'. These are given off by atoms of several elements. The ground soil sends out gamma rays which can be picked up by detectors in the aeroplanes or satellites. This emission is affected by the presence of moisture or water in the soil and hence, it can be easily detected whether or not the soil holds water. Moreover, in the pictures taken from space, the wet soil will have an altogether different appearance compared to dry or water less soil. Due to the presence of moisture, the water rich soil will not only show day time (diurnal) variation in temperature on its surface, but will also have a cover of vegetation. Analysis of the type, density, and pattern of the vegetation growing on the wet soil helps us in locating the areas of potential ground water. Similarly. the belts of hot springs may be identified and will show up in thermal or infra-red detectors.

Survey of the vegetation cover -  Forests of deciduous trees which shed leaves in a certain season can be easily identified with the help of pictures taken from the spacecraft specially during autumn when the deciduous trees shed leaves and there is no snowfall as yet to conceal the vegetation. Vegetation cover can be surveyed by measuring and analyzing infra-red reflection, or with the help of photographs. The density of vegetation, shape, and size of the plants and even the size, orientation and health of the leaves can be studied from afar. The pattern of seasonal growth of deciduous trees is different from that of the coniferous trees like pine and deodar and thus the difference can be detected in the photos taken by the spacecraft.

Search for mineral deposits -

Aerial photos and satellite pictures show very clearly if there is a break in the continuity of layers of rock. or other unusual features on the surface of the earth. The distinctive linear features are found to be very common centers where mineral deposits and ground water are accumulated. Radio waves & magnetic measurements also provide information about minerals and oil under the surface.

2. Resource Mapping - It is another modern method for the exploration of natural resources. Several types of maps, based on the type of resources, are prepared. Some of these are:

Soil Maps showing the types of soil their composition and biological productivity.

Mineral Maps showing locations of various kinds of mineral deposits in relation to settings of the earth's crust.

Hydrological Maps show the presence of underground water aquifers,i.e. rock formation containing water in recoverable quantity, in terms of the depth of water table.

Snow Cover Maps demarcate the extent of snowpacks on high mountains.

Resource mapping

Using various techniques, Resource Mapping is done to locate different resources like water, minerals, forests. vegetation as well as the types of land. Mapping of resources makes it possible to visualize how land use could be managed to the best advantage. The rural land use map tells us about the health of forests and the state of deforestation, about pastures, and agricultural crops. It also tells us how much land and of what kind is unutilized. The urban land use maps show housing, commercial buildings, sports facilities, essential services such as roads, water supply and disposal of waste, etc. Likewise, the preparation of regional land use maps will focus upon the broader aspects of development such as land used for agriculture, industrialization and urbanization, for obtaining natural resources (forestry, mining etc.), water resource development (dams, reservoirs and canals), transportation network (rails, road etc.) and also the zones prone to natural hazards like floods, cyclones, earthquakes, landslides and avalanches etc.

Q.  How the application of scientific knowledge has made agriculture possible in arid zones, drylands, and hills?

A.  The advancements in our scientific knowledge have now enabled us to practice agriculture in arid zones, drylands, and hills.

 Arid Zones  - The chief arid areas of our country are confined to Rajasthan, Gujarat, Haryana, Karnataka, and Ladakh. They cover an area of about 400,000 square kilometers. Of this, Ladakh has a cold desert spread over 70,000 square kilometers.

Here, aridity and low temperature limit the agricultural season to about five months in a year. Therefore, crops that require a short period to mature and can withstand severe cold are grown. These are some cereals, oilseeds and fodder crops. In the hot desert regions, of Rajasthan, Gujarat, and Haryana, there is an abundance of sunshine which causes high rate of evaporation. Many of these areas have adequate reserves of ground-water which is scientifically tapped for irrigation. In the arid zone fruit trees like ber and pomegranate and fuel-wood yielding trees like Acacia (Kikar), Prosopis (Mosquite) and Eucalyptus (Safeda) are grown. In such areas, large scale planting of shelter-belts minimizes soil erosion caused by wind. It also helps in the establishment of pastures and grazing lands. Later on, this land is used for growing pearl millet and mungbean.

Dry Lands - Drylands constitute about 74% of our cultivated lands and produce about 42% of our food. These are entirely rain-dependent and crop fortunes are closely linked to the vagaries of the monsoon. Sometimes rains may set in very early or very late or may come on time but withdraw too soon. There may also be large breaks between showers. When evaporation and loss of water by seeping in the soil exceeds rainfall, these lands are plagued by drought, scarcity of drinking water and thus crop failure. Rain water is collected in ponds to support agriculture. In Dry lands with red soil, deep ploughing helps in conserving water while In black soils, sowing two crops at a time is possible with surface drainage and good water management. Leaves and crop residues, when mixed with soil improve its texture and water holding capacity. Crops like pigeon pea and castor that have deep roots are cultivated in these regions which improve the physical condition of the soil further, as the roots of these crops add organic matter. Varieties of sorghum, millets, sunflower, safflower, mustard, groundnut, various pulses and cotton are available which grow within a shorter time withstanding scarcity of water and also diversifying crops in drylands. A variety of crops and cropping patterns allow the farmer to make a proper choice of what to grow in different climates and soil types.

Hills - Based on a study of the slope and depth of the soil, and availability of water, scientists have devised an interesting agricultural system that requires low inputs and puts the land to most productive use without disturbing the ecosystem. Under this system, the upper reaches of the hills are devoted to forestry. The next zone is developed for growing fruit trees, perennial fodder grass and legumes. The roots of legumes fix nitrogen and improve the soil. In the third zone, a mix of crops are raised on terraces constructed with low-cost implements. Earthen dams are constructed with locally available material. These collect enough water to be utilized for irrigation.

FST - 1

18th Part

Q.  Why should a country develop its own technology?               

A.  A nation should develop its own technology because

i)  it should be self-reliant,

ii)  the basic needs of its citizens must be met,

iii)  this will lead to an increase in its national productivity,

The technology must utilize the country’s human resources to the maximum. It should utilise locally available natural resources thus not dependent on foreign raw materials. Moreover, the import of technology has several drawbacks. Therefore, we should not keep on importing technology. We must develop our own infrastructure so that, after a certain stage, we can be in a position to develop our own technology. We should also be in a position to improve the borrowed technology and adapt it to Indian conditions. This is the way to self-reliance. Thus, imported technology, to a limited extent, will help us to develop. But, if we always rely on imported technology, and don't develop our indigenous technology, 'we will never be self-reliant.

Q.  Give any two examples of materials that are used as semiconductors.   

A. Semiconductors include antimony, arsenic, boron, carbon, germanium, selenium, silicon, sulfur, and tellurium. Silicon is the best-known of these, forming the basis of most integrated circuits (ICs). Common semiconductor compounds include gallium arsenide, indium antimonide, and the oxides of most metals.

Q.  Draw a neat and labeled diagram of the basic units of a computer. No description is needed. 

A.  

Q.  Draw a neat and labeled schematic diagram of a Nuclear Reactor. How does it work? What are the risks associated with the use of Nuclear Fission Energy ? Give one example. 

A.  There are many risks associated with the use of nuclear fission energy. Accidents have happened in nuclear power plants everywhere in the world. There are also instances when radioactive material has leaked endangering the safety and security of the local population, flora, and fauna. These risks have caused world-. wide debate, controversy and at times fear. In 1986, there was a major nuclear accident at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant in the then USSR.

Working - In a nuclear reactor, rod-like containers of Uranium-235 are inserted in holes made in a huge block of graphite. The graphite block slows down neutrons to enhance the chain reaction. Control rods of cadmium are also inserted into the graphite block. When pushed out, they absorb fewer neutrons and the reaction is speeded up. The problem, then, is to remove the heat and use it to generate electrical energy. This is achieved by circulating water, or liquid sodium to absorb the heat generated in the graphite block. This heat may generate steam, which can turn a turbine (a wheel with slanting blades) and the connected electrical generator.

Q.  What measures are being taken in India to encourage research in science and technology and their application in the industry?    

A. The Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) has a chain of laboratories in almost all areas relating to the national development effort: fuels. Ceramics and glass, chemicals, metallurgical and electro-chemical products, etc. Silk & Art Silk Manufacturing Research Association (SASMIRA) in Bombay and Indian Jute Industries Research Association (IJIRA) in Calcutta. which are maintained jointly by the collaborative efforts of the Government and the industries concerned, are active in their fields. Regional research laboratories maintained by the CSIR at different places like Trivandrum, Jammu, Hyderabad; look after the regional research and development needs.

      It has been the policy of the Government of India, from the time of Independence, to achieve self-reliance by developing indigenous technology In as many areas of Industry as possible. The National Research and Development Corporation of India was set up In 1953 for facilitating the transfer of technology from the laboratories of national R & D institutes to the field.

     In recent years R & D efforts in the fields of pure and applied chemistry, mathematics and physics have helped a great deal in our progress from agro-based industries to the areas of heavy industries, chemicals, steels, textiles, sugar, pharmaceuticals, computers and electronics. To give a few examples, the developments in the field of metallurgy have depended on the applications of the principles of chemistry, physics and engineering. A large number of manufacturing operations in the chemicals, steel, textile, sugar and pharmaceutical industries depend on chemical conversions. The development of computers and electronics have been based on fundamental physics and mathematics with the help of electrical, mechanical and production engineering. Research in materials science has led to experiments with fibre glass. This can be used in making lighter aircraft and lighter luggage, among other things.

FST -1

17th Part

Q.  What is Biotechnology? Describe the underlying techniques of genetic engineering and enzyme immobilization.               

A. Biotechnology is the industrial utilization of biological systems or processes. The most ancient biotechnological art is fermentation. Living micro-organisms have been used for centuries to make curds. condiments, cheese, and vinegar, to prepare dough for bread. The ability to control and manipulate microbes and use them for various applications has resulted in current biotechnology where microbes are used for a variety of purposes, related to health, medicine. food, pollution control, etc.

Genetic Engineering

The modem biotechnology revolution is based on the understanding and manipulation of the structure of DNA. DNA is a complex organic molecule that directs the synthesis of proteins in all living organisms. Thus, it controls the physical structure, growth, reproduction, and function of all living beings. The program for controlling protein synthesis is coded in the chemical structure of DNA. The discovery of the code and the synthesis of DNA in test tubes were important milestones in genetic engineering. However, the foundation of genetic engineering was laid by the discovery, that DNA supplied from outside is accepted by micro-organisms. DNA thus inserted into the cell en from a micro-organism, enables the cells to make the proteins specified in the codes of the inserted DNA. These new cells can be cultivated or cloned, until a significant number of cells are available to produce specific, desired protein molecules. Through genetic engineering, large quantities of scarce biologically significant proteins that are not easily available from natural sources can be manufactured. For example, insulin needed by diabetic patients can now be produced on a large scale using this technique. By selecting suitable bacteria, and using genetic engineering techniques, new varieties of bacteria that can eat man-made artificial products like plastics are being developed.

Enzyme Immobilisation

The use of enzymes as catalysts is well known in a number of industries, such as baking or wine making. But purified enzymes are soluble in water. It is, therefore, not easy to remove them from the final product. Further, it is difficult to re-use them. Thus, enzyme activity is lost in one cycle of the chemical reaction. These difficulties led to the development in the late 1960s of immobilized enzymes. The trick is to link an enzyme chemically to a large molecule, such as gelatin. It can then be used as a catalyst, and it can be extracted with the large molecule, for use once again. Immobilized enzymes have been successfully used in the production of semi-synthetic penicillin and in the large scale production of fructose from maize. Fructose is sweeter than glucose, yet it has the same calorific value and is used as a low-calorie sweetener.

Q.  Fibre optics technology              

A. Fiber optics is the technique of transmitting light waves through glass wires which as thin as human hair. These wires called optical fibers could be made of glass or transparent plastic, quartz, nylon or polystyrene. Optical fibers are thin hair-like solid strands that carry light along their length, by a process of multiple total internal reflections.

Applications of Optical Fibres

Fiber optics finds many applications in areas like medicine and communications.

Medicine

Instruments made of optical fibers, called endoscopes, are used to see the internal organs of the human body, such as the interior of the stomach, or the bronchial tubes. Once inserted into the body, some fibers of the bundle carry light so that the internal organ is lit up. Other fibres are used to return light so that the image of the interior is carried to the observer outside. Endoscopes are often connected to a camera or TV monitor. The images are very useful in heart and brain surgery and a diagnosis of some other diseases.

Telecommunication

The use of optical fibers has been very advantageous in telecommunications. Signals of voice, text, computer data or picture transmissions are superimposed on laser beams. The modulated laser beams are then guided along optical fibers, to various points where they are received. At the receiving end, one is able to hear the voice, read the data or see the picture. The signal carrying capacity of light waves(lasers) is much greater than that of radio waves or waves along copper wires. Therefore, the light waves traveling in fibers can carry thousands of different signals. For instance, a pair of glass fibers can carry 1300 telephone calls at the same time, as against 24 for copper wires.

Q.   (a) What is technology forecasting? Why is it an important area of study today?                                     

A.  Technology forecasting is a process to predict the relevant technologies of the future to satisfy the social need from the point of general planning. Also, future technologies are of interest to private manufacturers because their profits would depend on it. Technology forecasting is a cumbersome process. The path from science to technology and then to make useful devices and goods in society is not straight forward. Scientific discoveries sometimes took several decades before society made use of them as to produce devices based on them and add to general technology and science. 

         Successful technological forecasting is important to invest scarce funds to emerging technologies. Technological Forecasting appears to play an important role in the economic development of the country. Based on this importance, technological forecasting has often been used to support policy-making decisions. For technology forecasting, one has to keep an eye on the various areas of scientific research, as well as on social and economic aspects-not only in one country, but in the world at large. And one who is effectively able to do so stands to gain tremendously. More scientific research and technological development can be directed so as to obtain highly useful products.

            Technological forecasting is an important area of study today because of the resources to be allocated for making the actual products, the time taken to manufacture goods and if these products are required. There is scientific research in various branches; some of it is abstract or theoretical, some of the research is applied to produce practical products. Another important factor is to know if the society is ready to utilize the product, is it possible to create demand in the market to make a profit (or it must be created by advertising), before the likely product becomes an actually available technology.

Q.  Semiconductors              

Q.  n-type and p-type semiconductors. 

A. A semiconductor is a material whose ability to conduct electric current is greater than that of an insulator but less than that of metals. Silicon and germanium are the most commonly used semiconductors. Some other compounds like gallium, arsenide, indium, antimonide are-also used. The ability of semiconductors to conduct electricity depends critically upon their purity, or rather their impurity. A pure crystal of silicon or germanium acts more or less as an insulator. However, if an impurity is added to the crystal it becomes more conductive. Semiconductors are the basis of all the sophisticated electronics gadgets we have today. Digital watches, calculators, aircraft, spacecraft, satellites, telephone exchanges, lasers, and many more devices have components or equipment made up of semiconductors. 

     The ability of semiconductors to conduct electricity depends critically upon their purity, or rather their impurity. A pure crystal of silicon or germanium acts more or less as an insulator. However, if an impurity is added to the crystal it becomes more conductive. By the way, "impurity" does not mean a 50-50 mixture or even one part of impurity in ten parts of silicon. In useful semiconductors, a ton of silicon may have I mg of the element arsenic. Even the tiny bit of arsenic contributes surplus electrons to silicon, which then becomes a better conductor. Such a piece of silicon would be called an n-type semiconductor. On the other hand, a like amount of boron would cause a different kind of conduction to take place and the piece of silicon so treated would be called p-type semiconductor. The word 'doping' is used by scientists to describe the introduction of such small impurities.

Q.  What do you understand by nuclear fission ? Give any one of its applications. 

A. Nuclear fission is the splitting of a large nucleus of Uranium 235 into two smaller nuclei. If neutrons were shot at the nuclei of Uranium 235, the nuclei split into two and produced other neutrons along with huge energy to repeat the process and form a chain reaction. This is called nuclear fission.

         When the atom splits, the masses of the fragments and the neutrons produced do not add up to the mass of the original. A tiny amount of matter disappears. This lost matter turns into energy. The amount of energy 'E' generated by the lost matter of mass 'm' is given by -

                    E = mc2, where c is the speed of light.

c is large (about 300 million metres/sec) and c2 is enormous (about 90,000 trillion m2/sec2).

Thus, a small amount of lost matter would get converted into very very large amounts of energy.

Chain Reaction

When the atomic nucleus splits, it not only gives off energy but also throws out two or three more neutrons. 'These new neutrons can, in turn, split two or three other atoms. This way they release more energy and more neutrons, which will split more atoms. Once the splitting of the nuclei starts, it becomes self-sustaining. This whole process is called a chain reaction. Nuclear fission can be maintained as a controlled chain reaction in a nuclear reactor to produce energy which is used to heat water producing steam thus running the blades of the turbine to produce electricity.

Q.  Name two areas where we do not depend on imported technology.   

A. Energy sector and Chemicals.

Energy - the energy sources available in India are fossil fuels (like lignite, coal, and petroleum) the sun, wind, geothermal energy (for example, hot springs) and water (hydro-electric power). These energy sources are used by indigenous technology to produce electricity. The cost of energy varies. The cost of energy is also quite low in the case of fossil fuels. Large deposits of lignite have been found in Tamil Nadu. But it costs more than coal. Apart from fossil fuels, nuclear energy is considered to be one of the proven alternative energy sources and is developed to produce electricity. In India, at present, fossil fuels. hydro-electric power, biomass conversion. and nuclear power are the ones that are being used.

Chemicals -  We have a sizeable glass and ceramic industry, surface coating industry, food, and food by-product industry. Our agrochemical industries have developed indigenous technology for the manufacture of pesticides and insecticides. We also produce caustic soda, chlorine, cement, carbon, urea, nitric acid, super phosphates and gases like hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. Our soap and detergent industry indigenously manufactures soap, detergents and glycerine. Our oils and fats industries manufacture vegetables and animal oils and fats. A major breakthrough has been achieved in the field of petrochemicals. We have a number of petroleum processing plants and petrochemical industries, the biggest being in Baroda. India produces two-thirds of her petroleum requirements.

FST - 1

16th Part

Q.  What is a laser? Discuss the applications of lasers.                

A.  LASER stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. Laser light is made up of waves of light of the same wavelength. Because of the coherent property of laser, light waves in a laser beam can travel large distances without spreading apart. Because a laser beam does nor spread out there is a large concentration of energy per unit area on the object on which the laser beam falls.

Applications of lasers - 

Industry - 

  Because of the high concentration of energy, a laser beam can quickly burn and make tiny holes, a few millimeters wide, even in a strip of steel. Lasers have an advantage over all other traditional methods of cutting and welding. Using lasers we can cut any kind of material. such as paper, plywood, leather, plastic or cloth, as also the hardest of metals, ceramics, and glass with greater efficiency and accuracy. Lasers can, thus, make an ideal tool of cutting in the industrial sector tool for metal workers, carpenters and tailors, apart from engineers.

Military -

         A whole range of laser weaponry has been created, for use on land, on the sea and in space. X-ray lasers that can carry enormous energy have been developed. Efforts are on to install deadly laser weapons in satellites. The same technology could be used to destroy factories, forests, farms, and habitation.

Medicine - 

         A laser can be applied with almost perfect precision in surgery. It can bum away diseased tissue without damaging the healthy tissue nearby. The tissues are cut neatly and without any oozing of blood, and they can also be joined together. Lasers are completely sterile because bacteria cannot survive exposure to a laser beam. Today, lasers are routinely used in eye surgery to treat detached retinas and to destroy abnormal blood vessels that form in the retinas of diabetic patients. Lasers are also used for ear, eye and other delicate forms of surgery. From removing brain tumours to stopping bleeding from ulcers, and treating cancer of the bladder, lasers find enormous use in the medical sector.

Communications -

       Lasers have brought a revolution in the long-distance communication. Traveling through hair-like glass fibres, laser light can be made to carry thousands of times more information than electric signals in conventional copper wire. Thousands of telephone calls can be transmitted on a single fibre.

Other Uses -

         Laser beams are used to run music and video pictures on records that look like ordinary gramophone records. Such records can be played by a laser beam without getting wear out. Lasers may be used to measure the distance of objects like the moon from the earth.

Q.  Discuss the problems faced by any country when it imports technology from another country.               

A. Some of the problems faced by any country when it imports technology from another country are -

#  The buying of technology is very expensive. Take, for example, the buying of the latest defense aircraft from France. Though we have saved money and time by skipping through the various stages of research and development, we still have to pay large sums of money to buy these aircraft outright. This is because the price includes the developmental expenditure that France incurred in this connection. Further, the R & D structure within the country also remains undeveloped.

#  Imported technology often comes with restrictions or "political strings" attached to it by the supplier. For example, India used to import enriched uranium from the United States to use in its fission reactors. A time came when the US Government insisted that we sign the Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty. As India refused to do so the US stopped the supply.

#  The supplier often unloads obsolete technology on the recipient, sometimes at a very high cost. Since the receiving country does not have the technology, it may not even know how outdated the offered technology may be. An example is the automobile industry in which we continue to be saddled with models that are no more in demand in the developed countries or in the parent country.

#  The receiving country may permanently have to depend on the donor country, especially in crucial areas like defense equipment. The donor may sell a modern defense aircraft, but with the condition that the receiver always buys the spares and ancillaries from them. This way the receiving nation will not be allowed to be self-sufficient. 

#  When a country imports technology from more than one country for an industry, then the spare parts may not fit into various models. As you know, the technology for Maruti, Fiat, and Ambassador cars was imported from three different countries, namely, Japan. Italy and Britain; and the spare parts of one don't fit into the others. Since spare parts of one don’t fit into the other, thus the cost of production increases.

#  A multi-national corporation of a developed nation may give technological know-how to a developing nation with the restriction that the knowledge is not to be shared with other developing nations. This way they maintain their direct hold over different countries.

Q.  What is 'Technology Transfer'? Explain briefly the three ways by which technology may be transferred.  

A.  Technology transfer is the process of transferring technology from the places and in groups of its origination to wider distribution among more people and places. There are three ways in which we can transfer technology_

#  import of technology,

#  Transfer of technology from the laboratory to the field, and

#  export of technology from India.

Import of technology -

This form of technology transfer involves transferring of the essential expertise associated with the capabilities of more developed nations to the lesser developed nations, who require it for accelerated industrialization. This can be done in several ways: through licensing, joint ventures with foreign firms, direct foreign investments, etc. Its efficiency depends on many factors like the supplier's ability and desire to transfer, the recipient's capacity and desire to absorb, the recipient's socio-economic and cultural environment and communications processes.

Transfer of technology from the laboratory to the field -

It has been the policy of the Government of India, from the time of Independence, to achieve self-reliance by developing indigenous technology in as many areas of Industry as possible. We, therefore, had created a chain of the lab in all areas. The National Research and Development Corporation of India(NRDC) was set up In 1953 for facilitating the transfer of technology from the laboratories of national R & D institutes to the field. These institutes often provide the indigenous technology developed in house for commercial exploitation to NRDC.

Export of technology from India -

India has gained experience and expertise in various fields of technology. Thus, we are in a position to assist a lot of developing nations in the process of technological advancement. India exports technology to a large number of Asian, Middle-Eastern, African & Latin American nations. This is in the form of technological know-how or machinery.

Q.  Prepare a detailed account of the application of science and technology in small scale industries.             

Q.  With the help of two examples discuss the importance of technology in small scale industries            

A.  Science and technology are equally important in the handicrafts and small scale Industry as in large industries. Improved technology results in improved productivity in terms of capital investment and human resource requirements. The use of electric power and electronic machines in small scale and village level industries leads to efficiency in production and maintaining the quality possible. Moreover, the goods produced from these small scale industries become the feed material for large scale production units. This has been done partially in India, in states like Punjab and Haryana. In the engineering sector, the small scale industries provide finished goods in the form of required spare parts, etc to large industries as and also, this method is replicated to a smaller extent in other states. 

        The role of technology in improved productivity will always be a major role and there will be a need for skilled human resource for this. But a part of them may be deployed in training human resources for the village level industries, miniaturization of machines, and using the right type of electronic or other devices for working them. Infrastructure for creation of skilled human resource already exists in the form of Industrial Training Institutions, Polytechnics and the training centers of different industries. These have to be strengthened and re-oriented to serve the present-day needs of the small scale industries. 

Q.  What do you understand by "turnkey" technology? State its impact on India.

A.  Most of our industries in our country are dependent on imported technology for the production of goods. Often industry prefers to have "turnkey" technology, that is, technology and machines which can be installed and can start producing on turning a key or pushing a button. The establishment of turnkey industries has reduced the job opportunities for engineers and technologists who are being trained in our institutions. The result is that many of our skilled, technical personnel and scientists have to seek opportunities abroad in developed countries which leads to brain drain. Due to brain drain, our country loses lots of money every year, as the expense incurred on the training of these persons. This also leads to the loss of much needed technical human resources in India. 

Q.  a) Science and Technology for National Development           

(b) Robotics 

A. a)  The use and development of technology must relate to people's aspirations. Our own immediate needs in India are the attainment of technological self-reliance, a swift and tangible improvement in the conditions of the weakest sections of the population and the speedy development of backward regions of our country. Technology must suit local needs and, to make an impact on the lives of ordinary citizens. It must be used to bring in even small improvements by using the already existing raw material in abundance in the most cost-effective way. Our development must be based on our own culture and people’s need. We must have competent scientific and technological personnel, who should be well-versed in modern knowledge and "know-how". They should be able to innovate according to our needs and develop new technology. For example, they should be able to harness sources of energy which are in abundance in our country such as solar energy. 

b)   The science of designing, building and using robots is called robotics. The robots in use today are basically computerized machines that can be programmed to do a variety of tasks. For example, a robot can drill holes of several different sizes. Robots are also made to cut metal sheets, sort different vegetables, shear sheep, pluck chickens, form rice cakes and assemble mechanical parts. Robotic trains carry commuters to and fro from work. Robots can even assemble delicate watches and computer components. In factories, robots do spot welding and spray painting. A robot can also be programmed to change from one job to another and can be 'taught' to handle new tasks. For example, the same robot could drill a hole as well as place bolts into the holes drilled by it. Hence, a robot is a computerized, multifunctional and re-programmable machine that performs a large variety of tasks.