EHI - 4

16th Part

                                            

Q.  Trace the evolution of the Mughal school of painting under Akbar.       

A.  The first major project undertaken during Akbar's regime was that of illustrating the Hamza Nama. It began in 1562 for which several artists were employed at the court. The place where the painters worked was known as Tasvir Khana.  These artists belonged to different places, but among them the majority were Hindus. Interestingly, several low caste people, due primarily to their artistic skill, were also raised to the status of the royal artists. The artists were salaried employees. The atelier was supervised by daroghas with the assistance of clerks. They were responsible for making materials of painting easily available to the artists and to oversee the progress of their work. They also arranged for the periodical presentation of the artists' works before the Emperor. The painting was collaborative teamwork, there are paintings that bear the names of two artists. Sometimes even three or 4 artists worked on a single painting. 

Style and Technique

The illustration done at Akbar's court is considered as representative works of the Mughal art. Notably, however, in these paintings, there is evident a gradual evolution in the style & technique. The illustrations of the early phase are influenced by the Persian tradition, the identifying features of which are listed below:

#  symmetrical compositions;

#  restricted movement of figures;

#  fineness of the lines of drawings;

#  flat depiction of architectural columns; and

#  profuse embellishment of buildings in the manner of jewels.

Later, the paintings acquired a distinctive character of their own. They assumed a more eclectic character composed mainly of the Persian and Indian traditions with touches of European influence. 

Distinctive Features - 

The Mughal style became recognizable within a span of fifteen years since the setting up of royal atelier under Akbar. In the next decade or so, i.e. by about 1590 it acquired a distinctive form which was marked by:

#  naturalism & rhythm 

#  clothing objects of daily use assuming Indian forms.

#  picture space having subsidiary scenes set in background

#  extraordinary vigor of action and violent movement

#  luxuriant depiction of foliage & brilliant blossoms

             It should be emphasized here that the identity of the Mughal paintings under Akbar was as much made of an original style as a fusion of the Persian and Indian traditions.

             Painting under Akbar's period distinguish itself as a tradition from Persian painting as well, as from Indian styles particularly by the presence of historical subject matter. The two most commonly used themes are :

#  daily events of the court, and

#  portraits of leading personalities    

             While portrait painting was known in Persia, painting as a chronicle of actual events was certainly a new emphasis. Painters used familiar form& for hunting or battle scenes regardless of the fact that the literacy reference for the scene was historical or purely imaginary. Moreover, specific events illustrated are frequently reworkings of scenes recording quite different events in the earliest known historical manuscript of this period, the Timur Nama of about 1580 AD. Possibly, painters conceived scenes according to a repertoire of types e.g. the seize of a fortress, crossing a river, an audience or battle scene. In the working of whole volumes such as the Akbar Nama, the artists seem to have reworked or adapted these compositional types. Painters usually mated new compositions only when no prototypes existed, and only a few artists were capable of such invention.

Q.  Development of Rajasthani paintings during the 17 -18th centuries       

A.  Style and Themes

Rajasthani painting, since its beginning, adopted nature a the main theme. The illustrations are almost like landscape paintings where human figures seem to play only subordinate roles. Some of the main elements of nature depicted in these paintings are :

# a variety of tree forms;

# dense foliage;

# singing birds and frolicking animals;

# rivers full of lotus blossoms; and

# drops of rain falling from deep blue clouds.

The Rajasthani miniatures are also known for the intensity of colors used. Deep blue for clouds, streaks of gold showing flashes of lightning, and emerald green for foliage are some of the most prominently used colors. The major themes selected by painters of this gem are:

#  hunting scenes;

# portraits, and

# musical seasons.

Another characteristic of the Rajasthani paintings, particularly of the 17th century, is the use of compartmental pictures in which space is divided into bends & rectangles and used as frames for figures and groups.

Main Centres

(a)  Mewar School: The house of Nisar Din (1606) stands out as the earliest known group of Rajasthani painters. Subsequently, the same tradition was carried further by Sahib Din, who worked from 1627 to 1648. This phase represents the Mewar School at its height. Under the patronage of Jagat Singh (1628-52). a long series of illustrations called Nayakabheda was executed by a number of painters in a poetic and sentimental style.

(b) Bundi School: During the 18th century, the Bundi school took a new turn. While retaining its originality of expression, it followed the Mughal school in subject-matter and technical details, The main emphasis now was on the display of feminine grace in which it seemed to excel.

(c) Kishangarh School: The Kishangarh style was lyrical and sometimes sensuous. It was encouraged by Maharaja Sawant Singh. Although Mughal secular influence in painting influenced every court in Rajasthan, in Kishangarh deep Hindu devotionalism survived. Under Sawant Singh's patronage, there was a spurt in the art of painting based on the love-lore of Radha and Krishna. The elegant forms of the Kishangarh females, with their sharp noses, almond eyes, and arched mouths, set up a new tradition in Rajasthani painting. 

Q.  Discuss the various European technologies brought to India in the 17th century. Why did Indians show reluctance in adopting European printing press and time- reckoning devices?                     

A.  Military Technology - The fire-arms on a regular basis were introduced through the agency of the Portuguese. These guns were actually matchlocks. Europe knew of two more devices to fire a gun: wheel-lock (the 1520s) and flint-lock (1620s) in which match cord was dispensed with. European pistols were available at Burhanpur for sale as early as A.D. 1609. Sometimes Europeans gave pistols in gifts to Indians. But the Indians did not learn the art of wheel-lock. 

Shipbuilding - Prior to the European advent, the planks of ships and boats were joined together by stitching or sewing them with ropes made of coir, or sometimes with wooden nails. The Europeans were using iron nails and clamps which made their vessels stronger and durable. The Indians lost no time in adopting the new technique. Moreover, Iron anchors on ships were also adopted by Indians from Europeans. The Europeans also introduced iron chain-pumps to bail out the leaking water in the ship. 

Glass - During the 16th and 17th centuries, a variety of glass articles were brought to India by the Europeans for example, looking-glasses (mirrors made of glass).

Another object was spectacles made of glass lenses. The Europeans gave these things to Indians as a gift and, sometimes, they also sold them (but the market was very limited). Europeans also introduced drinking-glasses, magnifying or burning glasses and prospective glasses (telescopes). 

             Indians show reluctance in adopting the European printing press because the printed books were in the Roman script rather than in the Devanagari script and thus failed to generate interest among the masses. Not only language but also the dearth of technical staff to run the press. The books printed were not aesthetically appealing to nobles or Kings which therefore did not show interest. 

             Time- reckoning devices were mere toys and novelties for the Indians who received them as "diplomatic" or ordinary gifts. The one important reason for non-acceptance was the incompatibility of the Indian time-reckoning system with that of Europe at that time. In Europe, the system of twelve equal double-hours prevailed, while the Indian system consisted of 4 quarters (pahr) in the day. Further, each pahr was divided into gharis of 24 minutes each. Thus, the Indian system had 60 "hours" (of 24 minutes) to the full day, and the European consisted of 24 hours of 60 minutes each.

Q.  Trace the development of Mughal paintings under Jahangir & Shahjahan.  

A.  During Jahangir and Shahjahan, Mughal painting achieved its zenith. Jahangir took a deep interest in painting even as a prince. He maintained his own studio apart from Akbar's large atelier. He also continued the tradition of portraiture. Jahangir's preference was for paintings of hunting scenes, birds and flowers. Under Shah Jahan, the colors of the paintings were more decorative and gold was more frequently used for embellishment. 

New Style

In the period of Jahangir's rule (1605-27), manuscripts became less important than individual pictures. Two important new elements in the style of Mughal painting during the first half of the 17th century were - 

# Jahangir's paintings accentuated a formalist style, i.e., making the work realistic and preferring the precise recording of contemporary reality.

# The paintings of this period have broad margins which are gorgeously decorated with the depiction of flora and faces of human figures, etc. designs from plant motifs. 

Thematic Variations

Jahangir was a keen naturalist. We have paintings of birds and animals in the most realistic fashion. Under Shahjahan, the previous tradition of doing portraits, preparing albums, and, illustrating books, was continued. Additionally, the paintings depicting charming love scenes and portraits of female members. Another important theme chosen for painting was the superimposition of animals and the scenes of performing acrobats. 

Q.  Analyse the development of regional styles of painting during the 16 - 17th centuries.                                                         

Q.  Discuss various schools of painting that developed in India during the Mughal period.                                                       

A.  Deccan painting - 

Court Patronage

The greatest patronage to painting in Deccani kingdoms was given in the sixteenth century and the Decanni style reached its zenith in the seventeenth century under the impact of the Mughal tradition. The successor states of the Bahmani kingdom actively patronized painting. The earliest known painting from these states is dated between 1565-69. It is an illustrated manuscript of Ta'rif-i Husain Shahi composed and illustrated at Ahmadnagar. About 1570, a second Deccani manuscript was composed and illustrated at Bijapur. This was the Nujum-ul-Ulum. Towards the close of the 16th century, there had emerged a new tradition of painting in Ahmadnagar & Bijapur, known as the Ragamala painting.                           There is another category of paintings in the Deccan style which depict the pomp and grandeur of the royal processions. Several paintings of this type have come down to us from the reign of Abdulla Qutb Shah (1626-72) of Golkonda.

              In the 18th Century patronage of painting in the Deccan passed to the Asaf Jahi dynasty of Hyderabad. The painting of Azam S ah returning from bird-shooting and approaching his pleasure garden at the foot of the Golconda Fort, and the album of Himmatyar Khan, a noble of the Nizam's court, are some of the important surviving examples of the Deccani painting from Hyderabad.

Style & Themes - Although the Deccani paintings had varied degree of influence from Persian and Mughal paintings, yet some typical original features of Deccani paintings were - 

#  hierarchical scaling, i.e., the principal figure being bigger than the subordinate figures;

#  richness of the palette, in which white and gold are used as they are in no other Indian miniatures;

#  typical Jewelry, e.g., plaque of the necklace;

#  exaggerated swirl of the girdle and stole, especially in the case of feminine figures, and.

#  intersection of diagonals so as to form an arch around the principal figures.

Q.  Explain the developments in the sphere of military technology, shipbuilding, and metallurgy during the Mughal period.                    

A. Military tech - During the Mughal period, firearms began to be used on a regular basis. Babur in 1526, used guns and cannons in canons against the Rajputs & Afghans. These guns were actually matchlocks. Abul Fazl claims the manufacture of handguns without a match cord in Akbar's arsenal. European pistols were available at Burhanpur for sale as early as A.D. 1609. Cannons of various sizes were manufactured in India for the Indian rulers. Offensive and defensive weapons- like swords, spears, daggers, bows and arrows, shields and armors, etc. Were traditional still manufactured during the mughal period. 

Shipbuilding - Various methods were employed to join the planks. One of these was rabbeting which was widely practiced in India. This was basically on the tongue -and -groove principle: the 'tongue' of one plank was fitted into the 'groove' of another. The next step was to smear the planks with indigenous pitch or tar, and lime with the double purpose of stopping up any fissures and preserving the timber from sea worms. Fish-oil was also used for doubling the planks. Prior to the European advent, the planks of ships and boats were joined together by stitching or sewing them with ropes made of coir, or sometimes with wooden nails. The Europeans were using iron nails and clamps which made their vessels stronger and durable. The Indians lost no time in adopting the new technique. Similarly, Indians started using iron anchors introduced by Europeans. 

Metallurgy - i) The fuel for smelting consisted of wood charcoal (coal was not known). Thus, smelting was generally carried out at places that were near the source of wood supply.

ii) The smelters used small furnaces. 

iii) The bellows were ribless and small which did allow efficient air-blast to generate very high temperatures in the furnaces to reduce the ore to a totally liquefied state.

iv) In the case of iron and bronze, the metal was melted in diverse small furnaces were the molten material went to the mold. Since the quality of the molten metal in each furnace was not necessarily the same, the fabricated object could not have always been of high quality.

Q.  Textile production in Mughal India.                                

A.  After picking up cotton balls. there were three basic stages before cotton could be used for weaving:

i) ginning or seed extraction:

ii) carding or fiber loosening; and

iii) spinning or making yarn.

The first was done in two ways:

a) roller and board method. and

b) worm-press or worm-roller(charkhi) 

The most important technological revolution in the textile sector was the introduction of the spinning-wheel. A spinning-wheel could produce yarn six-fold more than the spindle during the same unit of time. This must-have resulted in a greater output of yarn and. constantly more cloths. 

         No radical addition or improvement seems to have been made during the seventeenth century. However, two developments that took place during this time period were, first, carpet-weaving under Akbar's patronage at Lahore, Agra and Fatehpur-Sikri; and second, production of silk and silk fabrics on a large scale.

Q.  Discuss the growth and development of North Indian languages and literature during the medieval period.                    A.  Hindi - Hindi language developed over a long period of time. A number of dialects spoken in various regions of northern India contributed to its development. The main dialects' from which Hindi emerged are Brajbhasa, Awadhi, Rajasthani, Maithili, Bhojpuri, etc. Khari Boli, a mixed form of Hindi, also came into existence in the 15th-16th centuries. During the 16th and 17th centuries, the form of poetry which developed was devotional (Bbakti). Kabir was the most famous exponent of this form. The Hindi literary language bloomed under the pervasive influence of the Bhakti movement The new poetry found its best creative expression in the writings of Gosvami Tulsidas who wrote his masterpiece Ramcharita-Mansa in 1574. Tulsidas inspired a number of other bhakti writers - like Agradas and Nabhajidas. 

Urdu - by the end of the 14th century, Urdu was emerging as an independent language. Like Hindi, the basic structure of Urdu consisted of Khari Boli - a mixture of various dialects spoken in Delhi and surrounding regions. Delhi, during this period, was ideally situated for the growth of a synthetic language since, on the one hand, it was surrounded. by people speaking different dialects of Hindi and, on the other hand, it had a Persian speaking ruling elite. Thus, Urdu adopted Persian script and Persian literary tradition but also incorporated the basic structure of Hindi dialects and, evolved an individuality of its own.

            Initially, Urdu appears to have emerged as an improvised language to enable the Persian speaking Turkish ruling class & soldiers to communicate with the local people including Muslim converts. This new common language took a century to acquire a concrete shape and came to be called "Hindavi" by Amir Khusrau. Hindavi thus forms the basis of both Hindi and Urdu. Amir Khusrau composed verses in Hindavi (using Persian script) and thus laid the foundation of Urdu literature. 

               However, it was in the Deccan that Urdu first acquired a standard literary form and came to be known as Dakhini during the 15th century. It developed first under the Bahmani rule and flourished in the Bijapur and Golkunda kingdoms. Gesu Daraz's Miraj-ul Ashiqin is the earliest work in Dakhini Urdu. Till the 18th century, Urdu was called by various names such as "Hindavi" , "Dakhini" , "Hindustani" or "Rekhta" (which means mingling several things to produce something new). In its developed form, Dakhini Urdu traveled back to the north and soon became popular during the Mughal period, It was during the period of the disintegration of the Mughal empire in the 18th century that the Urdu literature reached great heights.

Punjabi - The Punjabi language evolved from a broken form of Sanskrit known as Sauraseni Prakrit. Along with Brajabhasa and Rajasthani, Punjabi has the same grammatical base. The earliest text is the 'Adi Granth' whose compilation was completed by Guru Arjun Dev in 1604. Besides the composition of the Gurus, significant poetical work propagating the Sikh faith was done by Bhai Gurdas (1559-1637). His work is followed by devotional poetry enriching the Punjabi or the Gurumukhi language. Apart from poetry, a number of prose writings, mainly biographies called Janam Sakhis and expositions of the principles and tenets of the Sikh faith, emerged. In the secular field, a number of romances derived mainly from Muslim writers called 'Qissa' came to prevail. The most popular among these were the romance of Hir and Ranjha, and Mirza and Sahiban. The best exponent of the Hit and Ranjha story is Waris Shah. The contribution of Sufi poets to the development of Punjabi literature is considerable. The best known among these are Sultan Bahu (1631-91). 

Q.  Write a note on the growth and development of South Indian languages during the medieval period.                                A.  The important South Indian languages in which literature was being written. were Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, and Malayalam.

Tamil - 

A large number of Tamil works in literature are related to Shaivism & Vaishnavism. Haridasa a Vaishnava poet, wrote Irusamaya-vilakkam (an exposition of Saivism and Vaishnavism). Another Tamil work of significance was Sivadarumothram (1553) written by Marainanarbandar. The book having 1200 verses deals with chronology, temples and their constitution and theology. Saiva-Samayaneri (the path of Saiva creed) by the same author is work on the daily religious observance of Saivas. Kamalai.Nanaprakami wrote a Purana on Tirumaluvadi and a number of manuals on Saiva worship. Niramba Alagiya Desikar and his disciples also enriched the Purana literature. Desikar wrote Setu-puranamand Puranas on Tirupparangiri and Tiruvaiyaru. Madai Tiruvengadanathar an officer of the Nayak of Madura was an important literary figure of the 17th century. He wrote an exposition of Advaita Vedanta in a long Tamil poem. 

Telugu

Telugu as a language has affinities with Tamil and Kannada, but literary idioms depended on Sanskrit. The most glorious phase of Telugu literature was during the reign of Krishandeva Raya (1509-1529) of Vijaynagar. He himself was an acclaimed scholar. His Amuktamalyada is considered one of the great Kavyas in Telugu literature. The most celebrated poet at his court was, Allarrani Peddana. Manucarita is his most known work. Nandi Timmaha, another poet at Krishnadeva Raya's court, wrote Parijatapaharana in verse which is an episode of Sri Krishna's life. With the fall of the Vijaynagar empire, patronage to Telugu literary figures of the 17th

century was given by smaller states like Gadikota, Nellore, Sidhavatam, Gingee, Tanjore, and Madurai. Malti Ananta of Sidhavatam wrote Kakusthavijayam (1590-1610), Pushpagiri Timmana of Nellore translated Bhartnihari's Nitisataka.

Kannada

Most of the early Kannada works were Mitten by the Jainas; their contribution to the Kannada literature continued during the 16th and 17th centuries. Vadi Vidyananda of Geroppa compiled Kavyarasa in 1533 which is an anthology of prominent Kannada poets. Another Jaina scholar Salva (c. 1550) we a Jaina version of the Bharata Ratnakaravarhi. During the same period, Vaishnavita literature was also written. It is also in the form of translation of Sanskrit works into Kannada. A part of Mahabharata was translated by Kumaraa Vyasa, and the rest by Timmanna around 1510. 

Malayalam

Malayalam originated as a dialect of Tamil in the Odeyar region. By the fourteenth century, it acquired an independent status. A certain tradition of poets from the 15th century onwards contributed greatly to developing the Malayalam style of poetry. Rama Panikkar was one of the important poets of this tradition. Some of his prominent works are Bharata Gatha, Savitri Mahatmyam, Brahmandepuranam, and Bhagavatam. Cherruseri Nambudiri, a great poet of the 16th century, is credited for developing modem Malayalam literature. His famous work Krishnagatha is a beautiful poetic narration of Krishna's life. 

Q.  Write a brief note on the growth of Eastern Indian Literature during the medieval period.                                          Q.  Describe the growth of eastern language during the 16 - 17th centuries. How did the Chaitanya tradition enrich Bengali literature?                       

A. Bengali, Assamese, and Wiya were the major languages in which literature was produced in eastern India.

 Bengali

In the East, Bengali language and literature flourished after the advent of Sri Chaitanya The Vaisnava poets, inspired by the saint's mystic preachings, composed a number of lyrics in a new literary language with a blend of Maithili and Sanskrit This is known as Brajaboli and the lyrics - Padavali. Though the earliest biography of Sri Chaitanya was written in Sanskrit by Murari Gupta, this was followed quickly by the contemporary accounts of Brindabandas in Bengali. Brindabandas's Chaitanya Bhagavata or Chaitanya Mangal was probably composed within a decade of the saints' death and is considered to be the most authentic account of the social conditions of his time. The next important account is the Chaitanya-Charitamrita by Krishnadas Kaviraj. The work serves as the first philosophical treatise which elevated Sri Chaitanya into an incarnation of Sri Krishna and laid the philosophical foundation of Gaudiya Vaisnavism. 

Assamese

As in Bengal, Assamese literature also developed in response to the Bhakti movement. It was Sankaradeva who ushered in Vaisnavism and, being a good poet, he also introduced into Assamese a rich crop of poetry. He was followed by his disciple Madhavadas whose principal works were mainly the Bhakti-ratnavali dealing with different aspects of bhakti, a handbook consisting of a large number of hymns, the Baragitas depicting the life of Krishna in Vrindavan and another work also dealing with the childhood of Krishna. Translations from the epics and Puranas also formed a part of the literary projects of the Assamese writers. Rama Rarasvati translated parts of the Mahabharata, similarly, Gopal Chandra Dvija wrote the story of Krishna as told in the Bhagavata and Vishnu Purana. 

Oriya

Oriya literature in this mod was still under the spell of Sanskrit. A number of Kavyas were composed of Puranic themes by Madhusudana, Bhima, Dhivara, Sadasiva and Sisu Isvaradasa. Romances on non-Puranic themes were composed by Dhananjay Bharya. An interesting poetical experiment is seen in the work Rasa Kallol which deals with the love of Radha and Krishna. It was in the 17th century when Ramachandra Pattanayaka wrote his Haravali that Oriya literature developed a popular base. Vaisnava works like Prema-Panchamrita by Bhupaii Pandita opened the path of theology through poetry.