FST - 1

2nd Part

Q.  State two innovations made in the field of technology in Medieval India.  

A.  Astronomy and Physical Sciences

Astronomy was used not only for working out the calendar, the dates of the eclipses and for the determination of time but also for casting horoscopes for astrological purposes. The astrolabes made in India during this period were highly accurate. Raja Jai Singh established observatories at a number of places, such as Delhi Jaipur, Ujjain, Benaras, and Mathura. He paid special attention to the instruments of observation. A noticeable feature was the construction of large-sized observational instruments for fixing the time and determining latitudes. He succeeded in compiling fairly accurate astronomical tables, rectifying the calendar and in making more accurate predictions of eclipses.

Geography

Geography was another science where development took place. The astrolabes helped determine more accurate latitudes. A big advance was made in the field of cartography when in 1647 Sadiq Isfahani prepared an encyclopedic work that contained a World Atlas. The maps prepared by him, particularly of India, were fairly accurate in representing India as a peninsula and adding Sri Lanka at its southern tip. Rivers were sparingly shown.

Chemistry

In the field of metallurgy, there was a remarkable development. Before the close of the sixteenth century, zinc was isolated by a process known neither to the Arab civilization nor to the European(19th century). The isolation of zinc was accompanied by another achievement namely the manufacture of brass, an alloy of copper and zinc. Tin-coating of copper and brass learned from the Arab world became prevalent in medieval India, thereby enabling copper vessels to be more widely used. Soldering, particularly of gold on agates, crystals and other brittle materials, was done so efficiently, as to earn commendation from European travelers.

Medicine

The Greek (Unani) system of medicine in India arrived with the Muslims. However, there was no mutual exchange between it and the already existing Indian system of Ayurveda. The two systems remained separate. Miyan Behwa (about 1500 A.D.) wrote an important work on medicine Tibbi-i Sikandar Shahi, based on a number of Ayurvedic sources that are explicitly mentioned.

Q.  Describe the impact of freedom movement on the developments in science in pre-independence India.  

A.  By the early twentieth century, Indian society had started witnessing the first stirrings for freedom from colonial rule. While their political aspirations led to a demand for self-rule, the frustration resulting from economic stranglehold found expression in their insistence on using only goods made in India. Swadeshi Movement provided further impetus for :

i) promotion of education along national lines and under national control with special reference to science and technology,

ii) industrialization of the country.

In 1904, an Association for the Advancement of Scientific and Industrial Education of Indians was formed. The objective was to send qualified students to Europe, America, and Japan for studying science-based industries. In its third session (1887), the Indian National Congress took up the question of technical education and has since then passed resolutions on it every year. K.T. Telang and B.N. Seal pointed out how, in the name of technical education, the government was merely imparting lower forms of practical training. The Indian Medical Service was also severely criticized. In 1893, Congress passed a resolution asking the government "to raise a scientific medical profession in India by throwing open fields for medical and scientific work to the best talent available and indigenous talent in particular." Whether it be education, agriculture or mining, Congress touched several problems under its wide sweep.

           These efforts had, nonetheless, a galvanizing effect. Taking advantage of the University Act of 1904, which allowed the existing Indian universities to organize teaching and research instead of merely affiliating colleges, Sir Asutosh Mookherjee took the initiative of establishing a University College of Science in Calcutta. Eminent scientists such as P.C. Ray, C.V. Raman, S.N. Bose, and K.S. Krishnan taught there. This very college, although starved financially all through, produced a group of physicists and chemists who received international recognition. Many institutes were set up. For example, the Bose Institute (1917), Sheila Dhar Institute of Soil Science (1936), Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeobotany, etc. This gave further impetus to scientific activity in India.

Q.  Describe the notable contributions in science during Freedom Movement. 

A.  Those who put India on the scientific map of the world were many. J.C. Bose showed that animal and plant tissues display electric responses under different kinds of stimuli, like pricking, heat, etc. S.Ramanujan, an intuitive mathematical genius contributed a lot to number theory. P.C. Ray analyzed a number of rare Indian minerals and started the Bengal Chemical and Pharmaceutical Works, a pioneering and pace-setting organization in the field of indigenous chemical and pharmaceutical industry. C.V. Raman's research on the scattering of light later won him the Nobel Prize in 1930. K.S. Krishnan did thedretical work on the electric resistance of metals. S.N. Bose's collaboration with Einstein on the study of elementary particles led to what is known as the Bose- Einstein Statistics. D.N. Wadia worked in the field of geology, Birbal Sahni in palambotany, P.C. Mahalanobis in statistics, and S.S. Bhatnagar in chemistry. Another major development was the establishment of the Indian Science Congress Association (ISCA) in 1914 with the following objectives :

#  to give a stronger impulse and a more systematic direction to scientific inquiry,

#  to promote the interaction of societies and individuals interested in science in different parts of the country, to obtain more general attention to the cause of pure and applied sciences.

Q.  Briefly mention the development of implements and tools during the Stone Age. 

A. Stones were shaped to suit a specific purpose like digging, throwing or scraping. Their shapes and sizes became standardized over a period of time in different geographical regions. The major development at this stage, however, was the invention of master tools the implements to make implements. he created the possibility of producing many different types of implements than could be simply selected or picked up from nature. The process of making tools laid the foundation for our modem methods of casting, hammering, etc. When men made tools and used them for different tasks, they also became aware of the mechanical properties of many substances. For instance, they found out which materials were strong, which could be molded easily and which were brittle. This laid the basis of the physical sciences.

           The tools were used not only for hunting, but also provided a means of shaping and preparing softer materials such as wood, bone, and skin for decoration and art, or for protection from cold weather. Food gathering became much more efficient with the introduction of containers, baskets, and bins. Certain refinement of tools used for making hunting implements and the knowledge of how to handle soft materials led to pinning, sewing, tying, twisting, twining and weaving. These are the techniques needed for making clothes, rugs, tents, etc.

Clothes

The concept of clothes might have started even before weaving, as an extension of the practice of carrying food and implements about. Attachments with a convenient hold in the hair. around the neck, waist, wrist, and ankles might have been used. Feathers. bones and skins were often added to these attachments.

Q.  The separation of theory from practice becomes an impediment in the growth of science. Justify the statement with an example.    

A. Those who worked with their hands did not contribute to the stock of knowledge. And those who possessed even out-dated knowledge never had to test it on the touchstone of practice. The rich had no need for change, the poor had no power to bring about change. Either the kingdoms fought wars or settled down to long periods of peace. It seems natural to think that in such a society there was no clamor to develop new products or new processes. Social stability and stagnation can easily go hand in hand. 

Q.  With the help of an appropriate example, explain various aspects of the method of science.                   

Q.  What factors decide the broad areas of scientific activity?   

A. The scientific method is a systematic way of learning about the world around us and answering questions. The key difference between the scientific method and other ways of acquiring knowledge is forming a hypothesis and then testing it with an experiment. The various aspects of the method of science are - 

Observation 

It is an important aspect of science. Our everyday experiences arising from what we see, hear, touch, taste, and smell, form a part of common knowledge. For example, we observe that the sun rises in the east and sets in the west; a ball when thrown up comes down. In science, we go beyond just the common observation and experience and try to understand how a phenomenon occurs and why it occurs. Therefore, a scientist has to be clear about 'what' to observe and 'how' to observe it. These systematic observations are then put in order, i.e. classified, carefully recorded in the

form of tables or graphs and analyzed. The aim is to discover regularities and patterns in the factual information obtained. 

Questions - 

A number of questions may be posted on the basis of the observations, data, facts, and figures. The importance of questioning cannot be undermined. Science progresses by asking questions and finding their answers.

Hypothesis

Experiments

The experiment is an essential feature of modem science. Experiments are artificially created or contrived situations designed to make certain observations under strictly controlled conditions. The objective sometimes is to mimic nature. This allows the complexity of natural phenomena to be simplified for step by step study. Cause and effect relationships are studied through a great variety of experiments. Great ingenuity and care are required in designing experiments so that maximum information and clearcut results may be obtained from them. The results of such experiments prove or disprove a particular hypothesis. Sometimes, a hypothesis may have to be rejected outright and a new hypothesis framed to explain the results obtained from the experiment. At other times, experiments provide additional data for refinement or modification of a hypothesis.

Laws, Models, and Theories

From the observations and the results of experiments comes a good deal of scientific knowledge. But scientific knowledge is not simply a list of such results. The results are tied up and related to each other in the form of logical, coherent theories or laws. In general, a relationship between things covering the results of observations and experiments over a wide range of individual cases is called a law. Hypotheses are accepted as 'laws' only if they are supported by great deal of experimental evidence and there are no known exceptions to them.

           Often scientists create a model to simulate the object, phenomenon or situation they study. A model is an artificial construction to represent the properties, behavior or any other features of the real object under study. Models are useful because these represent in a simpler & familiar manner, a new complicated object, situation or phenomenon. A theory is a set of a few general statements that can correctly describe or explain all experimental observations about the properties and behavior of a large number of varied objects, phenomena, situations or systems. 

Example - 

We have taken this example from the history of science. In the seventeenth century, miners and well diggers observed that it was impossible to raise water more than about thirty-two feet, through ordinary hand pumps. Galileo thought that a water column higher than this was unable to bear its weight. His pupil Torricelli (1608-47) proposed another hypothesis, that the rise of water in a pump was due to the pressure exerted by the air in the atmosphere. He reasoned that if the rise of the water was due to atmospheric pressure alone, then any other liquid would rise only up to a certain height. He then calculated mathematically, that a column of mercury would rise up to a height of thirty inches. To test this, he set up a simple experiment taking mercury in a dish and inverting a glass tube filled with mercury on it. Mercury did not rise above thirty inches, proving Torricelli's hypothesis. Thus, the barometer was invented (Fig. 8.7). It is an instrument to measure atmospheric pressure. Fig. 8.7: Barometer. It is also known that high up in the mountains, the atmospheric pressure is lower than that at sea level. To further verify Torricelli's hypothesis, Pascal took the barometer up a mountain where the level of mercury fell. This showed that the low atmospheric pressure supported a lower height of the mercury column. Thus, it provided further confirmation of Torricelli's explanation.

Q.  Discuss the features of social organization in the Gupta Empire that greatly improved science and technology. 

A. Three features of the social organization in the Gupta Empire, that led to a great improvement in science and technology.

 i) State control was greatly relaxed and individual initiative was encouraged.

ii) In general, instead of one's lineage, property status and what one did in society

became important.

iii) The importance of agricultural and craft production led to an improvement in the condition of manual-workers like peasants and Sudras.

Gupta period is considered the peak of the Golden Age of Science. In the Gupta empire, the main mode of production was still agriculture. The Gupta kings continued the land acquisition started by the Mauryans. Samudragupta conquered a number of forest kingdoms in the valleys of the Ganges, Narmada, and Mahanadi. The pattern of land settlement in this period was, however, very different from that of the Mauryan-s. The State control and ownership of the cleared land were greatly reduced and land passed into private ownership. New laws were enacted to allow individuals to administer land and collect taxes, irrespective of whether they tilled the land or not. Most of the Gupta kings, irrespective of their individual religious faith, were secular as far as the state was concerned. Buddhism, Jainism and traditional Hindu institutions were all supported by the state through grants and patronage.

            Lineage which had determined one's position in society, gave way, to a certain extent, to one's property status. Thus, Brahmins lost its preeminence. The importance of agricultural and craft production led to an improvement in the condition of the Sudras. During this time, what one did in society became important rather than his birth. As a result of it, even Brahmins were obliged to take up occupations other than the performance of religious rites. This relaxation of rigid state control had a liberating influence as it encouraged individual initiative. It led to the decline in the hold of the Brahmins and that of the rigid 'varna' system over agricultural society.

Crafts

Rapid strides were made during this era in metallurgical and weaving crafts. Rustproof of iron and copper alloys were found and worked into intricate articles for civilians as well as military purposes. The quality of the articles was so good that they were widely exported, even as far as Africa.

Agriculture

Pepper and spices were grown for export as well as domestic consumption. A wide variety of crops like rice, wheat, barley, sesame, pulses, beans and lentils, vegetables such as cucumbers, onions, garlic, pumpkin, and betel were grown. New fruits like pears and peaches were introduced for the first time. All this did not take place at random or as a matter of chance. There were proper manuals that gave information on the type and quality of soil required for each plant, various plant diseases, the distances between plants as well as sowing techniques.

Textiles and Trade

In weaving, techniques were perfected for the making of cotton and silk materials. Manufacture of dyes and their widespread use in coloring textiles came into practice. Indian textile materials, especially from Varanasi and Bengal became famous for their lightweight and fine texture. The textiles became popular in the West and became an important commodity for export and trade. For merchants, just as for artisans, there existed associations which were also known as shrenis. The main trade routes were based around the rivers Ganges and Indus.

Q.  Briefly discuss the advances in the areas of science in India during Iron-Age. 

A.  This period witnessed significant advances in many areas of science like astronomy, geometry, mechanics, chemistry, botany, zoology, metallurgy &medicine. 

Astronomy and Mathematics 

As mentioned in Sulvasutras people had a high level of knowledge of geometry. Arithmetic was equally well developed. Numbers in multiples of 10 going up to as high powers of 10, as 1012 (one million million), were known and used. All the arithmetic operations on numbers were also known. Sulvasutras contain several instances of addition, subtraction, multiplication, division and squaring of fractions. Quadratic equations, indeterminate equations, permutations, and combinations.

Chemistry 

Objects found at various Iron Age sites included pottery, iron tools, and glass objects. By the fifth or the fourth century B.C., the Indian metalworkers had attained a high degree of perfection in the techniques of producing iron and steel. Glass objects, Ceramic bowls, dishes, lids and carinated jars ('handis') dated from about the sixth century B.C. to the second century B.C.. were also found in these sites. Fermentation methods, dyeing techniques, the preparation and use of a number of chemicals and color pigments were well known. 

Botany

As agriculture was the principal mode of production during Iron Age, botany and elementary plant physiology developed with the advances made in agriculture. The developments in medicine also helped these sciences. 

Zoology

A survey of Vedic literature has revealed that more than 260 animals were known at that time. Classification of animals and study of their dietary value had been attempted. Human physiology had also been studied during this time.

Developments in Medicine

Punarvasu Atreya (about 6th century B.C.) taught medicine at Taxila. Each of his disciples such as Bhela, Jatukarna, Harita, Ksarapani, Parasara wrote treatises on medicine. Atreya himself, Patanjali (about 2nd century B.C.) and later many others wrote commentaries on what is considered to be the main Indian treatise on medicine, the Caraka-Samhita. The origin of Caraka-Samhita, ana the surgical text

Susruta-Samhita is generally estimated to be around 600 B.C. There is is a meticulous classification and documentation of symptoms of various ailments, corresponding healing systems, their properties, methods of application and their dosages. The treatises are so important because

i) they are scientific in their approach and method,

ii) they have an influence on the development of other branches of science such as chemistry and botany, and

iii) they are transmitted through the ages in a form of practice known as Ayurveda.

Q.  Explain why the Ayurvedic system of medicine may be considered scientific. Give reasons. 

A.  Punarvasu Atreya (about 6th century B.C.) taught medicine at Taxila. Each of his disciples such as Bhela, Jatukarna, Harita, Ksarapani, Parasara wrote treatises on medicine. Atreya himself, Patanjali (about 2nd century B.C.) and later many others wrote commentaries on what is considered to be the main Indian treatise on medicine, the Caraka-Samhita. The origin of Caraka-Samhita, ana the surgical text Susruta-Samhita is generally estimated to be around 600 B.C. There is is a meticulous classification and documentation of symptoms of various ailments, corresponding healing systems, their properties, methods of application and their dosages. The treatises are so important, because - 

i) they are scientific in their approach and method,

ii) they have an influence on the development of other branches of science such as chemistry and botany, and

iii) they are transmitted through the ages in a form of practice known as Ayurveda.

Approach and Method

Their approach and method had the following significant features:

i) The physician was interested only in one thing and that was the cure of the patient. Towards this, he was allowed to take any steps including subterfuge and lies. For example, if it was essential for the patient to eat some flesh, the physician had to work out some tactics to overcome the patient's religious or aesthetic revulsion.

ii) The physician was to direct his attention to curing the patient. Hence, he was not supposed to cause any injury to the patient even though his own life may be at stake. The physician was to treat the patient as his own son.

iii) Medical knowledge was to be acquired from previous practitioners as well as through medical discussions.

Diagnosis and Prognosis

The diagnosis and prognosis of disease were done directly by seeing, hearing, smelling and touching all external human organs and human waste and often indirectly by pulse examination. These observations. singly or in combination, were correlated in specific diseases.

Curing methods

The most important curing methods were classified under five heads, namely, inducing vomiting, giving purgative, enema, oily enema, and nasal therapy. Specific applications of these were made according to the disease. Possible accidents during their application were also listed. There was also an extensive classification of diseases. Healing substances were classified as preventive and curative medicines.

Surgery

Susruta-Samhita, a.major treatise on surgery, was derived not only from exhaustive observation of symptoms of diseases and their possible treatments but also a fairly detailed knowledge of human physiology, anatomy, and especially the internal organs. For example, in treating ulcers or wounds, it is directed that the instruments should be introduced with the precaution of avoiding dangerous places, such as veins, bones and the like until the pus is visible. In the Samhita, there is also a detailed description of different types of iron instruments made by local smiths for extraction, cutting, etc., in terms of sharpness, shape, and size. Two interesting features of this treatise are:

i) Scrupulous attention to pre and post-surgical cleaning of the wound, implying some empirical knowledge of infection, and

ii) use of anesthetics. While instructions are given to bind the patient strongly so that he could not move during the operation, it is also mentioned that he should be given wine to drink before the operation so that he might not faint and might not feel the knife.