EHI - 3

3rd Part

Q.  Who were Mongols ? Give a brief account of their rise in Central Asia. 

A.  The Mongols were dwellers of the steppe region, north of China and east of Lake Baikal. In the early decades of the thirteenth century, Asia and Europe experienced a new wave of nomad conquerors from the east, an invasion more formidable and devastating than any other known to history before. These new invaders were the Mongols, who are best known for the great empire which they formed under Chengiz Khan. By the close of the thirteenth century, the Mongol empire covered a vast portion of the known world: China, Manchuria, Korea, North Vietnam, Tibet, Turkestan, Afghanistan, Iran, Mesopotamia, Southern Russia, and Siberia. 

              The sudden rise of Mongols to power appears to fall in line with an old pattern characteristic of the steppes. Long periods of internecine conflict between bands of nomads would throw up a leader of outstanding ability who after ironing out differences between the warring hordes welded them into a powerful coalition.

Through choice or compulsion, the smaller, fragmented nomadic groups were absorbed into the coalition. The next stage saw the nomads aggressively directed at the surrounding sedentary societies.

           Under Chengiz Khan the Mongols became a formidable force. The first military efforts of Chengiz Khan were devoted to bringing the pastoral tribes of the eastern steppes under his sway. The first military efforts of Chengiz Khan were devoted to bringing the pastoral tribes of the eastern steppes under his sway. Internally consolidated, the Mongols burst out of the confines of Mongolia and in 1211 AD, breached the Great Wall of China. It took the Mongols just about three years 1219-22, to complete the annexation of Transoxiana and Khurasan. Two years after, returning to Mongolia in 1225, Chengiz Khan died. By then the whole of northern China had been annexed. The empire was divided among his sons.

Q.  Briefly discuss the Mongol incursions in 13th—14thcentury India. 

Q.  Examine Delhi Sultans' response towards the Mongol challenge. 

Q.  Discuss the rise of Mongols in Central Asia. How did the Delhi Sultans face their attacks on India? 

Q.  Write a brief note on the Mongol problem during the Delhi Sultanate.

A.  The response of the Sultanate towards the Mongol challenge can be divided into three phases: (i) aloofness (ii) appeasement  (iii) resistance

A.   Iltutmish followed the policy of aloofness. The Delhi Sultans had to face the Mongol threat as early as A.D. 1221 when Chengiz Khan reached the Indian frontiers. Chengiz Khan is reported to have sent his envoy to Iltutmish's court. It is difficult to say anything about the Sultan's response, but so long as Chengiz Khan was alive (d. A.D. 1227), Iltutmish did not adopt an expansionist policy in the north-west region. An understanding of non-aggression against each other might have possibly been arrived at. Iltutmisln shrewdly avoided any political alliance with the Khwarizm Prince who was sought by Chengiz Khan. A shift from Iltutmish policy of 'aloofness' to 'appeasement' was the result of the extension of the sultanate frontier up to Lahore and Multan which exposed the Sultanate directly to the Mongol incursions with no buffer state left between them. Razia Sultan also followed the policy of appeasement by not joining the anti-Mongol alliance.

             Between 1240-66, the Mongols for the first time embarked upon the policy of annexation of India thus bringing an end to the non-aggression pact with Delhi. During this phase, the Sultanate remained under serious Mongol threat. The main reason was the change in the situation in Central Asia. The Mongol Khan of Transoxiana found it difficult to face the might of the Persian Khanate and, thus attacked India to improve his fortunes. 

             A distinct change in Delhi Sultan's policy can be seen from Balban's reign onwards. On the whole, it was the phase of 'resistance. By and large, Balbm remained in Delhi and his energies concentrated mainly in keeping away the Mongols, at least from the Beas. Balban used both 'force and diplomacy' against the Mongols. He took some measures to strengthen his line of defense. Forts at Bhatinda, Sunam, and Samana were reinforced to check any Mongol advance beyond Beas. Balban succeeded in occupying Multan and Uchh but his forces remained under heavy Mongol pressure in Punjab. 

            During Alauddin Khalji's reign, the Mongol incursions extended further and they attempted to ravage Delhi for the first time in A.D. 1299 under Qutlugh Khwaja. Since then, Delhi became a regular target of the Mongols and was ravaged again in 1303 AD. Constant Mongol attacks pressed Alauddin to think of a permanent solution. He recruited a huge standing army and strengthened the frontier forts. As a result, the Mongols were repulsed in 1306 and 1308. Thereafter Mongols got entangled in the civil war and their power weakened thus helping the Delhi Sultanate to extend and consolidate its frontiers. 

Q. Give a detailed account of the expansion of the Delhi Sultanate under the Khaljis. 

A. The first of Khalji Sultan, Jalaluddin couldn’t expand the Delhi Sultanate during six years of his reign. It was under Alauddin Khalji, his assassin, and successor that territorial annexation and expansion of the Sultanate started. 

West and Central India

Alauddin Khalji, after consolidating his position and firmly establishing himself at Delhi undertook the first expedition in the region of Gujarat in 1299 which was the first project of territorial expansion under him. The imperial army was jointly commanded by Ulugh Khan and Nusrat Khan and the province was plundered and the capital Anhilwara was sacked. The administrative control of Gujarat was entrusted to Alp Khan as governor. Continuing with westward expansion, the next kingdom to fall was that of Malwa in 1305. The province of Malwa, after its fall, was given for administration to Ainul Mulk who was known to also bring Ujjain, Dhar, and Chadderi under his control. Malwa was followed by Siwana, a town situated some eighty kilometers to the south-west of Jodhpur and the fort and the territory was put under the charge of Kamaluddin Gurg in 1309. In the same year (1309), Jalor was attacked and its ruler Kanhar Dev was killed in the battle and the fort annexed to the Sultanate under the control of Kamaluddin

Gurg. 

North-West and North India -

         In 1300, Alauddin sent Ulugh Khan to march against Ranthambhor ruled by Rai Hamir. Nusrat Khan, then posted at Awadh, joined Ulugh Khan. The Imperial army captured Jhain on the way and then laid a siege which was eventually captured after 6 months of siege. In pursuance of the same policy, Alauddin attacked and captured the kingdom of Chittor in 1303. Khizr Khan was assigned the governorship of the territory. 

Deccan and Southward Expansion - 

            The military campaign in the Deccan was planned by Alauddin against Rai Ram Chandra Dev of Devagiri in 1306-7. The command of the campaign was given to Malik Kafur, the campaign was successful as the king surrendered and agreed to pay regular tributes. The acquisition of wealth from southern kingdoms and not actual territorial annexation was the prime motive in sending these expeditions. Accordingly, in October 1309 the Imperial army began its southward march under the command of Malik Kafur and captured the fort of Sirpur. By the middle of January 1310, Warangal was attacked and the war came to an end due to surrender by Rai Rudra Dev. He agreed to part with his treasures and pay annual tribute as a token of submission. In February 1311, the Imperial army under Malik Kafur attacked Dwarasamudra, further south of Warangal and it was captured after surrender offer by Ballala Dev, the ruler of Dwarasamudra. Alauddin's Deccan and southward campaigns were aimed at achieving two basic objectives:

(i) formal recognition of the authority of Delhi Sultan over these

regions, and

(ii) the amassing of maximum wealth at the minimal loss of life.

Q.  Give a detailed account of the expansion of the sultanate under the Tughlaqs. 

A.  The Tughluqs came to power in Delhi When Ghiyasuddin Tughluq ascended the throne in 1320. The Sultanate was suffering from unsettled political conditions and demanded immediate attention to the new ruler. The outlying provinces had proclaimed independence as the effective control of the Sultanate had shrunk only to the heartland. This required fresh military campaigns for the reinforcement of imperial authority in South India. 

The South - 

In 1321, Ulugh Khan (later Muhammad Tughluq) started for the south with a large army. Without much resistance in the way he reached Warangal. After two sieges, each lasting four or five months, the ruler Rai Rudra Dev finally decided to surrender. But this time there was no forgiving and thus the fort was occupied, plundered and some demolitions affected. The Rai was made a prisoner and escorted to Delhi. Warangal was annexed to the Sultanate under direct imperial administration. In continuation of the same policy Ulugh Khan also brought Malabar to submission

and set up direct imperial administration there. The region of Telingana was thus made a part of the Delhi Sultanate and divided into several administrative units.

            The expedition in the eastern parts of India came as a consequence of the wars in the South. Bhanudeva II, the ruler of Jajnagar in Orissa supported Rai Rudra Dev of Warangal at the time of imperial offensive against the latter. Ulugh Khan, therefore, after laving Warangal sometime in the middle of 1324, marched against Jajnagar. A fierce battle Ulugh Khan(Muhamad Tughlak) was victorious. He plundered the enemy camp and collected large booty. Jajnagar was annexed and made a part of the Sultanate. In 1323-24 Bengal was also brought under the Sultanate.

Northwest and North - In 1326-27 Muhammad Tughluq led campaigns to Kalanaur and Peshawar. These regions were successfully captured and after settling the administrative arrangement of the newly conquered regions and he marched back to Delhi.

Q.  Compare Alauddin Khalifs and Muhammad bin Tughluq's Deccan and Southern campaigns.
Q.  Discuss the Delhi Sultan's policy towards Deccan and South India.
A.  Above ans.

Q.  Discuss the consolidation of the Delhi Sultanate in India during the 13thcentury.

A.    The period between 1206-1290 was the formative years of establishment and consolidation of the Delhi Sultanate. It was marked by a prolonged, multi-cornered conflict within the Ghorian ruling class as well as against the renewed Rajput resurgence. Muhammad Ghori's sudden death in 1206 resulted in a tussle for supremacy among his three important generals, Tajuddin Yalduz: Nasiruddin Qubacha and Qutbuddin Aibak. Yalduz held Karman and Sankuran on the route between Afghanistan and upper Sind. Qubacha held the important charge of Uchh, while Aibak had already been deputed as the 'viceroy' of Muhammad Ghori and the overall commander of the army in India.

              Early in brief reign of four years, Aibak (d. 1210) moved his capital to Lahore in order to frustrate Yalduz's ambition of annexing Punjab and thus thwarting his attempt to establish himself in India.

              Aibak was succeeded on the throne by his son-in-law Iltutmish who brought back the capital to Delhi. Large portions of the territories conquered by the Turks had slipped out of control and subjugated Rajput chieftain had withheld tribute and repudiated allegiance. Iltutmish's quarter-century reign (1210-1236) was distinguished by a concerted drive to re-establish the Sultanate's authority on areas that had been lost. in 1215, Yalduz was defeated at Tarain and in 1217 Iltutmish wrested the province of Lahore from Qubacha and placed it under his own governor.

          Though the Mongol presence had upset Iltutmish's plan of consolidation on the north-west, it also created conditions for the destruction of Qubacha who held Uchh. As a consequence, Iltutmish was able to seize Bhatinda, Kuhram, and Sarsuti. About 1228, he launched a two-pronged attack on Multan and Uchh. Unified control over the north-west now became possible for the Delhi Sultanate. In Rajputana, the Turks were able to reclaim Ranthambhor, Mandor, Jalor, Bayana, and Thangir. 

          Iltutnish's death saw sharpened factionalism and intrigue among the Turks. In a period of thirty years, four rulers, (descendants of Iltutmish) occupied the Throne but the actual power remained in the hands of 40 slave officers of Iltutmish. Between 1235-1265 political developments revolved around the conflict between the crown and a military aristocracy, determined to retain its privileged position. 

          The accession of Balban in 1265 provided the Sultanate with an iron-willed ruler. Balban addressed himself to two major objectives:

i) to raise the prestige of the crown through elaborate court ceremonials, and inculcation of Sassanian traditions that distanced the ruler from ordinary folks, converting him into a symbol of awe;(ii) consolidating Turkish power: rebellions

were put down with determination and administrative procedures were streamlined.

Q.  In what ways did Iqtas help in the consolidation and later decline of the Delhi Sultanate? 

A. Iltutmish had introduced a sound system of revenue assignments (iqta) through which the vast bureaucracy was maintained. Feroz Tughluq's reign, however, saw deterioration in its working which had devastating consequences on the Sultanate. During his reign, revenue assignments tended to be hereditary and permanent which was completely different than before. This applied even to the royal soldiers. The tendency of the principal assignees to sub-assign their territories also increased greatly during later years. All this had deep implications. It meant not only loss of vast revenue resources to the state exchequer but by making the assignments permanent the Sultan allowed the assignees to develop strong local roots which led to wide-scale corruption and turbulence besides allowing them to have their area of influence independent of central authority. These steps led to the rise of regional states.

Rise of Regionalism - The signs of physical disintegration were witnessed for the first time during Muhammad Tughluq's reign in 1347 A.D. with the establishment of the Bahamani kingdom. But the Sultanate remained intact for at least nearly fifty years when finally the Timurid invasion (1398 A.D.) exposed its weakness. It provided ample opportunity for the nobles to establish their own areas of influence, independent of the Sultan. Governors like Khwaja Jahan (Jaunpur) in 1394 Khwaja in 1394, Dilawar Khan (Malwa) in 1401, Zafar Khan (Gujarat) in 1407, and some regions in Rajasthan also declared their independence during the 15th century. Bengal was already a semi-independent kingdom since the days of Bughra Khan. The Sultanate practically shrank to the radius of 200 miles around Delhi. It had deep implications.

                Loss of the fertile provinces of Bengal, Malwa, Jaunpur, and Gujarat curtailed greatly the vast revenue resources of the state. That, in turn, disabled the center to wage long wars and organize campaigns against the refractory elements. The situation became so critical under the Sayyaids & the Lodis that even for regular revenue extractions the Sultans had to send yearly campaigns.

Q.  What innovations did Alauddin Khalji introduce in the land revenue administration? Did he succeed in eliminating the intermediaries? 

A.  There were three groups of the rural aristocracy they were - khot, muqaddam, and Chaudhuri who collected land revenue (kharaj) from the peasants on behalf of the state and deposited the same with the officials of the diwan-i wizarat. For this service, they were allowed perquisites (haqq-i khoti) as remuneration by the state which consisted of being exempted from the revenue of a portion of land held by them. Also, they took something from the peasants as their share of the produce . Besides land revenue (kharaj), every cultivator had to pay house tax (ghari) and cattle or grazing tax. As a result of financial powers, the intermediaries had become

intractable-always in readiness for rebellion. Allauddin leveled the following main charges against them:

a) They did not pay the revenue themselves on that portion of their land which was not exempt from assessment; rather they shifted their 'burden' onto the peasantry, that is, they realized additional levy from the peasants besides the fixed demand of the state in order to pay their own dues.

b) They did not pay the grazing tax.

c) The ill-gotten 'excess of wealth' had made them so arrogant that they flouted the orders of the revenue officials by not going to the revenue office even when summoned to render accounts.

                As a result, the Sultan had to strike at their resources for economic and political reasons. The measures taken by him were as follows:

i) The magnitude of the state demand was set at half the produce of the land. The land was to be measured (masahat), and the land revenue fixed on the yield of each unit of the area. The term used was Wafa-i biswa (Wafa = yield; biswa =1/20th of a bigha). Most probably, it was levied separately on the holding of each individual cultivator.

ii) The intermediaries and the peasants alike were to pay the same standard of the demand (50%) without any distinction, be they intermediaries or 'ordinary peasant' (balahar).

iii) The perquisites of intermediaries were disallowed.

iv) The grazing and the house tax were to be taken from the intermediaries also.

The measures taken were successful, though the peasants were protected now from the economic oppression of the intermediaries, the former had to pay a higher rate of taxation than they did earlier. Since the rate was uniform in a sense it was regressive taxation. Thus the state gained at the cost of the intermediaries, leaving the peasants in the lurch.

Q.   Critically examine the salient features of revenue administration under the Delhi Sultans. 
A.    Above answer 

Q.  Describe the central administrative machinery of the Delhi Sultans. 

A.   The central administrative machinery of the Sultanate consisted of the nobles controlling various offices with the Sultan at the helm of affairs. 

  The Sultan - The Delhi Sultans could make civil and political regulations for public welfare. Khutba and Sikka were recognized as important attributes of sovereignty. The khutba was the formal sermon following the congregational prayer on Fridays wherein the name of the Sultan was mentioned as the head of the community.

Coinage was the ruler's prerogative his name was inscribed on the coins (Sikka). The Sultanate witnessed a rapid rise and fall of dynasties. The Sultan, or a contender to the throne, could only keep himself in power with the support of the nobles who were themselves divided into numerous groups. 

The Wizarat (Finance) - 

              The wazir, as the head of the diwan-i wizarat, was the most important figure in the central administration. Though he was one of the four important departmental heads, he exercised a general supervisory authority over others. The wizarat organized the collection of revenue, exercised control over expenditure, kept

accounts, disbursed salaries and allotted revenue assignments (iqta) at Sultan's order. There were several officials who helped the wizarat such as the mushif-i mumalik or the accountant-general and the mustaufi-i mumalik or the auditor-general.

The Diwan-i Arz

The diwan-i arz or military department was headed by the ariz-i mumalik. He was responsible for the administration of military affairs. He inspected the troops maintained by the iqta-holders. He also supervised the commissariat duties (supply and transport) of the Sultan's army.

Other Departments

The diwan-i Insha' looked after State correspondence. It was headed by Dahir-i mumalik. This department dealt with all correspondence between the Sultan and other rulers, and between the Sultan and provincial governments. It issued farmans

and received letters from subordinate officials.

The barid-i mumalik was the head of the State news-agency. He had to keep informed of all that was happening in the Sultanate. The administrative subdivisions had local barids who sent regular newsletters to the central office. The barids reported matters of state - wars, rebellions. local affairs, finances, the state of agriculture, etc. Apart from the barids, another set of reporters existed who were known as munhiyan.

The diwan-i risalat was headed by the sadr-us sudur. He was the highest religious officer. He took care of the ecclesiastical affairs and appointed qazi. He approved various grants like waqf for religious and educational institutions, wazifa and idrar to the learned and the poor.

The Sultan headed the judiciary and was the final court of appeal in both civil and criminal matters. Next to him was the qazi-ul mumalik (or qazi-ul quzzat), the chief judge of the Sultanate. The muhatsibs (public censors) assisted the judicial department. Their task was to set that there was no public infringement of the tenets of Islam. 

Slaves and Karkhanas

Slaves were an important feature of the royal household. Alauddin Khalji owned 50,000 slaves, while Feroz Tughluq is reputed to have had 1.80.000 slaves. During his reign, a separate department of slaves (diwan-i bandagan) was set up. The slaves were used for personal service and acted as body-guards. 

              The needs of the royal household were met through karkhanas. Under Feroz Tughluq there were 36 karkhanas. Each karkhana was supervised by a noble who had the rank of a malik or khan, and a mutasarrif who was responsible for the accounts and acted as the immediate supervisor. A separate diwan or accounts office existed for the karkhanas. The karkhanas manufactured articles for Imperial household as well as for military purposes. There were weavers to manufacture cloth required by the court and for making robes of honor to be given in gift to the favored ones. It must be remembered, however, that articles produced in the royal karkhanas were not commodities, i.e. not for sale in the market. Nobles, too, maintained their own karkhanas.

Q.  Examine the nature of the Sultanate ruling class.

A.  At the time of the Ghorian invasions, north India was divided into a number of principalities ruled by rais and ranas (local chiefs) and at the village level, khots,  muqaddams (village headman) and Chaudhari. 

COMPOSITION OF THE RULING CLASS

The early Turkish ruling class was very much in the nature of a co-sharer of political and financial powers with the Sultans. In the beginning, the nobles (amirs) were practically independent in distant areas of the conquered territories where they were sent by the Centre as governors. The latter was designated muqti or wali and their territories were known as iqtas. Gradually, the practice began of transferring muqtis from one iqta to another. Many of the early Turkish nobles and Sultans (such as Aibak and Iltutmish) had started their early career as slaves but they received letters of manumission (khat-i Azadi) before becoming Sultans. One such was Qutbuddin Aibak. On his death in A.D. 1210, Ilturmish, one of his favored slaves, seized Delhi and set himself up as Sultan. The Sultans needed the support of the nobility to establish and maintain themselves in power. For instance, Iltutmish came to the throne with the support of the nobles of Delhi. The Turkish nobles played an important part in elevating Sultans to the throne and supporting contenders to the throne. The early Turkish nobility sought to emphasize their exclusiveness and their monopoly to rule. Efforts by other social groups to challenge their monopoly were resented and resisted. The nobles of Iltutmish called turkan-i-chihilgani ("The Forty") wielded considerable power-after his death. They were an important group, and efforts by the Sultans to incorporate other groups were met with much resistance.

            There was a change in the composition of nobles during the Khalji era. Alauddin Khalji further eroded the power of the older Turkish nobility by bringing in new groups such as the Mongols, Indians, and Abyssinians. This trend towards a broadening of the composition of the ruling class continued during the rule of the Tughluqs.

             Under Muhammad Tughluq, apart from the Indians and the Afghans, the ruling class became unprecedentedly more heterogenous with the entry of larger numbers of foreign elements, especially the Khurasani. Even non-Muslim, as well as the converted Indians, were included in the nobility.

           The Afghans were frequently recruited into the feudal bureaucracy of the Delhi Sultanate. With the coming of the Lodis (145 1-1 526), the Afghan predominance got enlarged.

            It is significant to note that every Sultan sought to form and organize a group of nobles that would be personally loyal to him. This obviated the necessity of depending upon previous groups whose loyalty was suspect. But one thing was quite certain that every group tried to capture the attention of the Sultan-whether weak or strong because all privileges and power issued forth from the sovereign. This, in turn, went to a great extent in strengthening gradually the position of the Sultan himself if he was a man of strong will.

Q.  Discuss the factors responsible for the disintegration of the Delhi Sultanate. 

A.        One political reason for the decline of the Sultanate was the absence of any well established and universally accepted law of succession. This was in line with the entire history of the Islamic polity. As long as a Sultan was strong and was able to gain the support of some groups of nobles, he could continue with some superficial semblance of dynastic stability. Dissensions and conflicts amongst the ruling groups might remain apparently dormant in such circumstances, but at the slightest opportunity, their internal struggle would come to the force often in a violent

fashion. Initially, the iqta system served the central authority: its elements of transfer and non-permanence ensured the Sultan's power. On the other hand, the gradual disappearance of these principles, especially during Feroz Tughluq's rule, paved the way for the steady dissipation of the state's authority. The upshot was the emergence of autonomous and, then, independent political centers in different regions.

Some of the factors were-

1. No clear and well-defined law of succession developed in the Sultanate. The hereditary principle was accepted 'but not adhered to invariably. There was no rule that only the eldest son would succeed (primogeniture). In one case, even a daughter was nominated (for example, Raziya Sultan). 

                Thus, in the absence of any succession rule in the very beginning intrigues surfaced to usurp power: After Aibak's death, it was not his son Aram Shah but his slave and son-in-law Iltutmish who captured the throne. Iltutmish's death (1236 AID.) was followed by a long period of struggle and strife when finally Balban usurped the throne. 

2. The conflict between Nobility and Sultan

3. Crisis in revenue administration.

4. Rise of regional states.