EHI - 02

5th Part 

Unit 23

Q. Who were the Sungas? Give an outline of their rule.

A. The Sungas was a brahmana family belonged to the region of Ujjain in Western India, where they worked as officials under the Maurya Kings. The founder of the Sunga dynasty was Pushyamitra Sunga who assassinated the last of the Maurya Kings Brihadratha in 180 B.C. This is corroborated by Bana, the Sanskrit prose writer and court poet of Harshvardhana of Kanauj. The Ayodhya inscription of Dhanadeva describes Pushyamitra as an orthodox Brahmin and indulging in asvamedha or horse sacrifice, a Vedic ritual symbolizing royal glory. Pushyamitra controls a vast territory

and according to Puranas, his reign continued for 36 years who was succeeded by his son Agnimitra. The last Sunga King was Devabhuti. He was the fourth ruler of the line and according to Banabhatta, author of Harsha-Charita he fell victim to the conspiracy of his brahmana minister Vasudeva. Thus, the Sunga line came to an end around 75 B.C.

Q. What was the significance of the rule of the Sakas in northwest India?

A. The Sakas are referred to also as Scythians. In the Indian context, the sources sometimes mention the Scythians arid Parthians together as Saka-Pahlawa. The Sakas poured into India through the Bolan Pass from the central Asian region. Coins and other sources indicate that the Sakas divided themselves into many branches and settled in the lower Indus region. One branch of Sakas settled in Afghanistan.

Another line of the Sakas settled in Punjab with Taxila as the capital. There was another that ruled from Mathura. A fourth branch established itself in Western and Central India from where they continued their rule till about the fourth century A.D. The Sakas are credited with destroying and defeating the Greek rule in Northwestern India. The Sakas along with the Parthians introduced the Satrap system of government. Under this system, the kingdom was divided into provinces each under a military governor called Mahakshatrapa (great Satrap). Governors with lower status were called Kshatrapas (Satraps). These governors issued their own inscriptions and also minted their own coins. This is indicative of a more

independent status than was otherwise normal in an administrative set-up.

Q. What is the most important source for the reconstruction of the history between 200 B.C.-300 A.D.?

A. Apart from coins minted in this time period that gives vital information, Puranas and other texts like the Gargi Samhita, the Mahabhashya of Patanjali, the Divyavadana, the Malavikagnimitra of Kalidasa and the Harshacharita of Bana.

Evidence of Sunga history comes to us also from the inscriptions from Ayodhya, Vidisa, and Bharhut. Inscriptions written in Kharosthi script are found in large numbers in this period in the region of Gandhara and there are many Kharosthi documents found in Central Asia as well. In the Buddhist sources too, we find evidence regarding this period. For example, the Pali work Milinda-Panha (The questions of Milinda) bears on the Yavana King Menander and on Buddhism in this period.

Q. Write short notes on a) Impact of Central Asian Contact.

A.The significance of contact with Central Asia is widespread and in different spheres -

Trade & Technology - Trade contacts with Afghanistan were already existing but now Central Asia also opened up to trade with new routes. One of these routes became famous as the old Silk Route. The Kushanas controlled the silk route which started from China and passed through Central Asia and Afghanistan and Western Asia. This route was a source of great income to the Kushanas. They levied tolls from the

traders. India received a good deal of gold from the Roman Empire. Traders of different ethnic origins established trading stations and colonies from which the merchants operated. Examples of such places are Kashgar, Yarkand, Khotan, Miran, etc. New elements in cavalry and techniques of war were introduced in India. The Central Asians also brought in the cap, helmet, and boots that were used by the warriors.

Material Remains - New kinds of techniques were added to the already existing techniques for structures, pottery, and coins. Excavations have revealed several layers of structures in Northern India. They point to the use of burnt bricks for both the floor and the roof. Brick wells may also have been introduced during this period. The pottery of this period is redware, both plain and polished, with sometimes medium and sometimes fine fabric.

Polity - The Sakas and the Kushana put great emphasis on the notion of the divine origin of kingship. The Kushana kings were referred to as Sons of God. The Sakas had introduced the satrap system in the administrative set-up. The entire empire was divided into satraps. Some of the foreign rulers also introduced the practice of hereditary dual rule which meant two kings, holding higher and lower status, ruling in the same kingdom at the same time. For example, a father and son would rule simultaneously. The practice of military governorship was also introduced probably by the Greeks. These governors were known by the title of Strategos. They were important for two reasons :

(a)for maintaining the power of the rulers over the indigenous people and

(b) for blocking invasions from the northwest.

Religion and Art Form - The foreigners adapted to Indian ideas and forms of worship. kings like Menander and Kanishka were converted to Buddhism. Some of the rulers

were worshippers of Vishnu; others of Siva. Some Kushana rulers worshipped both Siva and Buddha and the images of these two Gods appeared on some of the Kushana coins. The foreign rulers were also patrons of Indian art and literature.

b) Assimilation of the foreigners into the Indian mainstream.

A. Above answer & Foreign rulers like Kushanas controlled vast territories & they fully integrated with Indian mainstream. Although their empire lasted for about one century and a little

more, their connection with India, their assimilation into Indian society as well as their contribution to Indian culture left a deep impression on the Indian mind. Like the Sakas and Pahlavas, they too are mentioned in Epic, Puranic and other literature. The Kushanas were particularly important as their empire became a meeting point of civilizations of the Mediterranean world, Westem Asia, Central Asia, China, and India. Kanishka I one of the Kushana rulers is an important figure in the history of Buddhism as being one of its great patrons. He sponsored the fourth Buddhist council during

his reign to discuss matters relating to Buddhist theology and doctrine. The doctrines of the Mahayana form of Buddhism were finalized at the council. Missionary activity was given an impetus and during his period Buddhist monks started traveling to Central Asia and to China. Kanishka was also a patron of art and Sanskrit literature.

Unit 24

Q. How would you account for the increase in trade in the post-Mauryan period?

A. Some of the reasons were -

# Agriculture generating enough surplus during that period. It had created such social classes which required varieties of items that could be acquired only through trade. Agricultural produce was itself now an item of trade because the majority of people living in cities did not produce their own food.

# Both Buddhism and Jainism which had a large following encouraged the accumulation and reinvestment of wealth and trade as was one of the occupations held in high regard. Hence we find that there was a close relationship between the traders and the Buddhist Sangha and Buddhist monastic establishments were located at important points along trade routes further facilitating the trade.

# The expansion of urban centers meant that there was a growing class of consumers for subsistence as well as luxury goods. Together with these internal factors was an increased demand from outside for various Indian goods. Two major empires that arose at this time were the Roman Empire in the west and the later Han Empire in China. Within the Roman Empire, there was greater demand for products of the east such as spices, aromatic woods, etc. Similarly, the rulers of the later Han Empire adopted an encouraging approach

towards merchants and this resulted in an acceleration of contacts between India, Central Asia, and China.

Q. Describe the importance of the Ganga valley in the early historical period.

A. The Ganga rises in the Himalayas and in its journey to the Bay of Bengal it receives the waters of many tributaries along the way. These tributaries such as the Yamuna, Gomati, Ghagara, Gandak, etc. add to the flow of water in the Ganga with the result that even in the summer months enough water is available for irrigation and agriculture. The south-west monsoons bring rainfall mainly to the middle and lower Ganga valley & the region is fertile & capable of supporting large populations. Not only is the Ganga valley agriculturally productive but the river itself is also navigable along its length. From ancient times there has been regular traffic of men and commodities on the Ganga and the river has been the lifeline of the north, connecting the cities of the northwest with those near the coast.

Q. According to the Greek text Periplus, which were the items imported into, and exported out of India?         A. The imports in India included brocades, coral, frankincense, glass vessels, money, and some wine. The Romans are famous for technological improvements

that they made in the manufacture of glass which was in demand in India. In exchange for these, the exports from India were spices, precious stones like turquoise, lapis lazuli and carnelian and Chinese silk and yarn.

Q. Why were the Chinese goods being traded from China to Europe through India?

A. The reason for this was the political situation. The Parthians were powerful rulers along the north-western boundary of the Indian sub-continent. There was constant hostility between them and the Roman Empire and as a result, overland routes between China and the west were disrupted. Many of the products from China were hence traded along the land route to India.

Unit 25

Q. Explain the basic aspects of Mahayanism.

A. Mahayana belief, first preached by a Buddhist sect called Mahasanghika, that every being could aspire to Buddhahood and could attain it-through various stages as Bodhisattva. One could become a Bodhisattva by performing the meritorious acts or Paramitas. Other features associated with Mahayana faith are: Belief in'sunyata or void or non-reality of objects; belief in mantras, belief in numerous Buddhas and

Bodhisattvas and the practice of worshipping gods and goddesses. Whereas earlier Buddha was considered as a teacher only, now in the Mahayana sect he was worshiped as God. This brought about a change in the form in which he was worshiped. For example, earlier in sculpture, he has represented through a pair of footprints; a white elephant and a flower, etc. But now people began to worship Buddha images and idols.

Q. Write a note in about five lines on important Jaina centers.

A. Among the many Jaina centers, Rajagriha or Rajgir developed into an important center during the first and second centuries A.D. Vajra Muni of the Svetambara sect

was associated with this place. Mathura was another important center. From the sculptures found in Mathura and

from the dedicated inscriptions on them, it is evident that the merchant class patronized Jainism here on a significant scale. It continued to be an important center of Jainism for many centuries. According to a late tradition. Ujjain was another important center of Jainism in this period. In the northwest, Sirkap in Taxila grew into a Jaina center from the early centuries of the Christian era in addition to being a major Buddhist center. It had a large Jain establishment.

Similarly, Broach and Sopara on the western coast were great centers and monks frequented there. In Orissa, Udayagiri and Khandagiri hills near Bhuvaneswar were other centers from the Mauryan times, and they continued to flourish even after the rule of Kharavela. In the Tamil country, Madurai and Sittannavasal may be considered as important

centers. Large Jaina establishments existed at these places in the second century B.C. and afterward.

Q. Discuss the important aspects of Vaishnavism in 100 words.

A. Vaishnavism was another popular sect of Brahmanism followed by a larger group of people in all parts of India. The principal deity of this sect was Vishnu who is referred to as the protector in the Brahmanical religion. The cult of Vishnu in the early period was known by the name Bhagavatism, which was developed from the Vedic cult Vasudeva-Krishna. Bhagavatism owed its origin to the Upanishads. It arose around the Mathura region. It stressed upon the idea of a supreme god called 'Hari' and sacrifices & other rituals were regarded as of minor importance. Devotion to Vishnu was considered as the supreme virtue. Initially, it was confined to the Mathura region but later Inscriptions testifying to the worship of Vasudeva are found in Maharashtra, Rajputana and Central India. In the Tamil country also the worship of Vishnu was very popular. His different qualities and attributes are mentioned in the Tamil Sangam works. He is identified

with Krishna. He was also worshiped in his avatars (incarnations) as Rama and Balarama. Vishnu, the chief deity of the Vaishnava sect, had manifested himself in many avatars. Vishnu was thus worshiped also in his avatar forms. Krishna, Rama & Balarama was the most respected avatars of Vishnu. But other avatars like Narasimha and Varaha were also worshiped.

Q. Write about the new developments in Brahmanism during this period.

A. Brahmanism too acquired many new features during this period. The central feature of this was the worship of gods and goddesses and not the performance of sacrifices. Two important sects Shivaism and Vaishnavism rose to prominence during this period. The characteristic changes apparent in this period were:

# a the shift from the pure ritual to bhakti or devotion, and

# assimilation of some of the local traditions into the Brahmanical religion. Vaishnavism absorbed a number of different gods like the Vedic Vishnu. The epic heroes Rama and Krishna were accepted and they gained an enviable position among the Brahmanical deities. The Tamil deities, mentioned in the Sangam literature, were adopted into the Brahmanical faith. In the same way, some of the local deities of north India were also admitted into the Brahrnanical pantheon. Among them, Brahma, Agni, Surya, and Indra were some of the popular ones. The four guardian deities (dikpalas) namely, Yama, Varuna, Kubera, and Vasava were also worshipped. Beside these:

# Animals like elephant, horse, and cow were worshiped,

# The Naga or Serpent worship was popular in. almost all parts of the country, and

# Many trees and tree spirits were also worshiped.

Unit 26

Q. Discuss in about five lines the main features of Mauryan Art.

A. During the Mauryan period, sculpture and architecture had reached a developed stage. The Asokan pillars; the animals and carvings on the pillars - all represent mature art forms. A unique feature of the specimens of Mauryan art fashioned in

stone is the polish and the smooth, glassy surface not to be found during any other period. In addition to the animal figures, the most famous piece of art is the figure of Yakshini from Didarganj, Patna. This superb art piece tells us about the hairstyle, ornaments, and dress of women during that period. The Mauryan levels at sites which have been excavated have yielded a large number of terracotta figurines.

Q. What is a Stupa? Discuss the main characteristics of Sanchi Stupa.

A. The practice of preserving the remains of an important personality below accumulated earth was long in existence. Buddhist art adopted this practice and the structure built over such a site was known as Stupa. The Stupas had the shape of a bowl turned upside down. At the top, which was a bit flat, used to be its harmika, i.e. the abode of the Gods. It was here that the urns containing the remains of the

Buddha or a great personality connected with the religion was placed in a gold or silver casket.

Sanchi Stupa - has three Stupas all with gateways around them. But the most famous is the Great Stupa which was originally made of brick in Asoka's time (C. 250 B.C.). During the Sunga period, this was later on nearly doubled in circumference in 150 B.C. The bricks of Asokan times were replaced by stones, and a 'Vedika' was also constructed around it. The northern gate and the panels depict stories from the Jatakas. The reliefs of Sanchi display (among other representations) the following quite prominently :

1) The four great events of the Buddha's life, i.e. birth, attainment of knowledge, dharmachakra - pravartana and Mahaparinirvana.

2) Representations of birds and animals like lion, elephant, camel, ox, etc. are abundant. Some of the animals are shown with riders in heavy coats and boots.

3) Lotus and wishing-vines have been prominently and beautifully carved out as ornamentation, and

4) Unique representation of forest animals in a manner that looks as if the whole animal world turned out to worship the Buddha.

Q. Discuss in about ten lines the main characteristics of Gandhara art.

A. Gandhara Art which was mainly Buddhist was profoundly influenced by Hellenistic art. The chief patrons of Gandhara art were the Sakas and the Kusanas. Gandhara art can be divided into two schools early and later. During the early school, which existed during the first and second century A.D., blue-grey schist stone was used to make idols. However, in the later school instead of schist stone, mud, lime, pilaster, and stucco were used to make the idols. These idols give a realistic representation of the human figure clearly indicating limbs and other organs of the body. They are depicted with sharp features and anatomical accuracy. Besides idols, we find beautiful carvings on reliefs the theme being the life of Buddha and Bodhisattvas. The main centers from where the art pieces of Gandhara School have been found are Jalalabad, Hadda, Bamaran, Begram, and Taxila.

Q. Give such examples of art which demonstrate that besides religious themes, political personalities had drawn the sculptor's attention. 

A. Mathura Art - The Mat village in Mathura yielded big images of kushana kings and other notables like Kanishka, Wima, and Chastana. The idea of building reliquaries or structures for housing portrait-statues of rulers and other dignitaries of the State came from Central Asia. This was done to give the rulers a divine status. A bronze reliquary was recovered from the sidewalls of the Stupa at Shah-Ji-kidheri. It depicts Buddha, Kusana kings and flying geese (symbolic of wandering monks).

Amravati Art - Similar to the depiction of Kushana kings from Mathura in the form of statues, we find the kings and princes as themes represented in Amaravati sculpture

also. However, at Amaravati, they are not individual statues but are arts of a narrative. For example, the story of King Udayana and his queen is depicted on relief, a relief medallion depicts a court scene where the king is receiving presents, and in relief, the panel has depicted a scene showing a king on the march, with elephants, horse riders and footmen.