EHI - 3

6th Part

Q. Relation of Gujrat with neighboring states.

A.  The Kingdom of Gujarat since its inception had been constantly clashing with its neighboring territories -Malwa, Rajputana, Khandesh and the Bahmani kingdoms.

 Relations with Malwa

The Malwa rulers were their traditional enemies. In 1408, Muzaffar Shah attacked Malwa and made its ruler Hoshang Shah captive. Though Hoshang Shah had to accept the suzerainty of Muzaffar Shah, he was jealous of the rising power of Gujarat. To undermine its power, the rulers of Malwa used to join hands with the enemies of Gujarat. But Ahmad Shah of Gujarat succeeded in crushing Hoshang Shah's power. Later during Qutbuddin Ahmad Shah 11's reign (1451-59), Mahmud Khalji of Malwa attacked Gujarat but he was repulsed.

Relations with Rajputana

Another formidable power with which the rulers of Gujarat had been constantly at war was Rajputana. The first Rajput kingdom to form part of Gujarat was Idar (1426). Soon, Ahmad Shah overran Dungarpur (1433). Later, Qutbuddin (1451-59) and Mahmud Begarha (1459-151 1) had to face Rana Kumbha, the ruler of Mewar. The Rajput state of Champaner also constantly clashed with Gujarat. But finally, it was annexed to the Gujarat kingdom by Mahmud Begarha in 1483-84 who renamed it Muhammadabad and made it his second capital. 

Relations with Bahmani and Khandesh

The Bahmani ruler Feroz Shah maintained cordial relations with the Gujarati rulers. But after his death (1397-1422), a radical change came about with the accession of Ahmad Bahmani (1422-1436) who formed a matrimonial alliance with the ruler of Khandesh. When-Rai Kanha of Jhalawar fled (1429), Khandesh and Bahmani rulers gave asylum to him. This infuriated Ahmad Shah Gujarati and he had to use force against them. He subjected them to a crushing defeat and occupied Mahim. However, during Mahmud Begarha’s reign cordialities revived. When Mahmud

Khalji of Malwa attacked the Bahmani kingdom, Mahmud Begarha came twice to its rescue.

           Mahmud Begarha also maintained friendly relations with the Khandesh rulers, but Adil Khan II ceased to pay tribute and joined hands with Ahmadqgar and Berar. As a result, Mahmud Begarha attacked Khandesh and finally, Adil Khan was compelled to accept the suzerainty of Mahmud Begarha. But the latter did not annex either Khandesh or Daulatabad; instead, he confirmed their rulers on payment of tribute.

Q.  Explain the rise and consolidation of Bahamani power in the Deccan. 20

Q.  Examine the main features of the economy of the Vijaynagar empire.  12

Q.  Discuss the growth of Sufi orders in India during the Sultanate period  20

A.  Various Sufi orders were introduced in India after the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate at the beginning of the 13th century. During the 13th and 14th  centuries, khanqahs sprang up in various parts of India. The Sufi's introduced various orders in India from the Islamic world, built up their own organizations and

established themselves in their respective areas of influence. By the middle of the 14 century, the entire country from Multan to Bengal and from Punjab to Deogiri had come under the sphere of their activity. Once the Sufi orders took roots in different parts of India, they followed their own phases of growth, stagnation, and revival. 

SUFI ORDERS IN INDIA DURING THE SULTANATE PERIOD 

The Suhrawardi Sllsilah

The Suhrawardi silsilah was a major order of the Sultanate period. Its founder in India was Shaikh Bahauddin Zakariya (1182-1262). He was a Khurasami and was a disciple of Shaikh $hahabuddin Suhrawardi who had initiated the silsilah in Baghdad and was directed by the latter to proceed to India. He made Multan and Sind the centers of his activity. Thus, one of the oldest khanqahs in India was established by him at Multan. He accepted-State patronage and maintained links with the ruling classes. 

           In addition to Shaikh Bahuddin-Zdcariya, many other Khalifas were designated by Shaikh Shahabuddin Suhrawardi to spread the Suhrawardi silsilah in India. One of them was Shaikh Jalaluddin Tabrizi. After his initial stay in Delhi, where he failed to

establish his supremacy, he went to Bengal. He established his khanqah there and made many disciples. He attached langar (center for the distribution of free meals) to his khanqah. He is said to have played an important role in the process of Islamization in Bengal. During the Sultanate period, Punjab, Sind, and Bengal became three important centers of the Suhrawardi activity. They converted people with the help of the ruling class.

The Chishti Silsilah

The growth of the Chi&ti order in India during the Sultanate period took place in two phases.

First Phase

       The Chishti order became the most influential and popular Sufi order in India, originated in Herat & was introduced in India by Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti (d. 1236). He came to India at the time of the Ghori conquest and settled in Ajmer about 1206 and won the respect of both Muslims and non-Muslims.

         The successor of Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti in Delhi was Khwaja Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki (d. 1235). Shaikh Hamidduddin Nagauri (d. 1274), another Khalifa of Shaikh Muinuddin (Chishti, made Nagaur in Rajasthan center of his activity.

                Shaikh's Hamiduddin Nagauri established the silsilah in Nagaur where he lived like an ordinary Rajasthani peasant and dissociated himself from those in authority. He was a strict vegetarian. He and his successors translated many Persian Sufi verses in the local language called Hindavi. 

         Khwaja Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki was succeeded in Delhi by his Khalifa,  popularly as Baba Farid who left Delhi for Punjab and lived in his khanqah there.

         He despised association with the ruling class and rich persons. Nathpanthi yogis also visited his khanqah and discussed with him the nature of mysticism. His popularity in Punjab is clear from the fact that more than three hundred years after his death, verses ascribed to him Were included in the Adi Granth compiled by the fifth Sikh Guru, Arjun, in 1604. The most celebrated disciple of Baba Farid and the greatest Sufi saint of the 14th century was Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya (1236-1325) who made Delhi the most famous center of the Chishti order. Later. his successors spread the Chishti order in various parts of the country.

Second Phase

The second phase in the history of the Chishti silsilah during the Sultanate period began with its decline in Delhi following the death of Shaikh Nasiruddin and its subsequent dispersal in various regional kingdoms. Though the Sufis had begun to arrive in the Deccan from the late 13th century, it was Shaikh Burhanuddin Gharib who introduced the Chishti order there during the reign of Muhammad Tughluq. The Bahmani kings, on their part, purchased the political loyalty of these Sufis and gave land grants to them. The most prominent of these Chishtis was Muhammad Banda Nawaz, Gesudaraz (c. 1321-1422). He left for the Deccan and received a land grant of four villages from Bahmani Sultan, Feroz Shah Bahmani (1397-1422). He was an orthodox Sufi and declared the supremacy of Islamic law (Shariat) overall Sufi stages. Gisudaraz discontinued many practices of early Chishtis which clashed with the attitudes of orthodox ulema. After his death, the Bahmani Sultans continued the land grants in favor of his family descendants. His tomb or dargah in Gulbarga later developed into a popular place of pilgrimage in the Deccan. But the transformation of his descendants into a landed elite and their

indifference towards Chishti teachings led to the decline of living Chishti tradition in Gulbarga. The change of Bahmani capital from Gulbarga to Bidar in 1422 also contributed to the decline of the Chishti order in Gulbarga. 

           However. the Chishti tradition began to thrive again in the Deccan from the end of the 15th century and it continued to grow during the 16th and 17th centuries. 

Other Sufi Orders

In addition to the Chishti and the Suhrawardi.orders, there were others such as the Firdausi, 'the Qadiri,, the Shattari, Qalandari, etc. which were introduced in India during this period. 

                The Firdausi order was a branch of the Suhrawardi which established itself at Rajgir in Bihar towards the end of the 14th century. 

              The Qadiri was introduced in India in the late 14th century and established itself in the Punjab, Sind and the Deccan. The Qadiri had an orthodox orientation and its doctrinal positions were similar to those of the orthodox ulema. The Qadiri Sufis had close relations with the ruling classes of various provincial Sultanates and accepted state charity. The order was urban-based and attempted to reform the religious life of Indian Muslims of what is considered as un-Islamic influences.

           The Shattari order was introduced in India in the 15th century by Shaikh Abdullah Shattari, were also an orthodox order. The Shattari centers were established in Bengal, Jaunpur and the Deccan. Like the Qadiris, the Shattari Sufis Had close ties with the court and accepted state patronage.

           The Qalandari order covered a wide range of wandering dervishes who violated normal social behavior. They were considered reprehensible and above Islamic law. 'They had no recognized spiritual master and organization. Many Frequently visited Chisti khanqahs and became absorbed into the Chisti order. They also had contacts with the Nathpanthi yogis and adopted many of their customs and practices like ear piercing. 

          The Rishi order of Sufism flourished in Kashmir during the 15th and 16th centuries. .It prospered in the rural environment of Kashmir and influenced the religious life of the people during the 15th and 16th centuries. The popularity of the Rishi order was due to the fact and it drew inspiration from the popular Shaivite bhakti tradition of Kashmir.

Q.  Describe Salient features of Sufism

A.  There developed a number of Sufi orders Or silsilah in and outside India. All these orders had their special characteristics. However, there were a number of features which are common to all the Sufi orders Here we will discuss such features.

i)  Sufism, as it developed in the Islamic world, came to stress the importance of traversing the su& path (tariqa) as a method of establishing direct communion with divine reality (haqiqat).

ii)  According to the Sufi beliefs, the novice has to pass through a succession of "stations" or "stages and changing psychological conditions or "states" (hal) to experience God.

iii)  The Sufi path could be traversed only under the strict supervision of a spiritual director (shaikh, pir or murshid) who had himself successfully traversed it and consequently established direct communion with God.

iv)  The disciple (murid) progressed through the "stages" and "states" by practicing such spiritual exercises as self-mortification, the recollection of God's name to attain concentration (zikr) and contemplation. 

v)  The Sufis organized impassioned musical recital (sama). The practice of sama was intended to induce a mystical state of ecstasy. However, some Sufi orders did not approve of certain forms of sama and the ulema was particularly hostile to this practice.

vi)  Yet another feature of Sufism is the organization of the Sufi into various orders (silsilah). Each of these silsilah e.g. suhrawardi, Qadiri, Chishti, etc. Was founded by a leading figure who lent his name to it. A silsilah consisted of persons who had become disciples of a particular Sufi.

vii) The hospice (khanqah) was the center of the activities of a Sufi order. It was the place where the pir imparted spiritual training to his disciples. The popularity of the khanqah and its capacity to attract disciples depended on the reputation of the pir. The khanqahs were supported by endowment and charity.

Q.  Analyse the reasons for the popularity of Chishti Sufis in India.  

A.  All the Sufi orders of the Sultanate period believed in achieving the basic Sufi goal of .establishing direct communion with God by traversing the Sufi path under the supervision of a spiritual guide. However, different Sufi orders observed distinct rituals & customs of their own and differed in their attitudes to state and society. Of all the orders of this period, the Chishti emerged as the most popular, and it was also widespread. Chishti rituals, attitudes, and practices made it an essentially Indian silsilah. The causes of its popularity are as follows :

i)   Many practices of early Chlshtis bore a close resemblance to the attributes of some of the already existing non-conformist religious orders in India such as asceticism, bowing before the master, shaving the head of a new entrant into the order and organizing spiritual musical recital. In this sense, the Chishtis came to be regarded as part of an established tradition in India.

ii)  The Chishtis adopted an attitude of religious tolerance towards the non-Muslim the population of India and adjusted themselves to the needs of a predominantly non-Muslim environment. They made use of popular imagery and popular idiom to convey their ideas to their Indian followers and adopted many of their customs and rituals. Many of the Chishti saints made Hindavi the vehicle tor spreading their teachings.

iii)  The egalitarian atmosphere of the Chishti khanqahs attracted a large number of people from lower sections of Indian society. The Chishti attitude towards religion was characterized by sympathy towards the deprived sections of society. Caste distinctions of the Brahmanical social order were meaningless in the Chishti khanqahs. Merchants, artisans, peasants and even sweepers became the followers of the Chishti order. Nor did they accept, the two-fold racial division of the people by the Turkish ruling class into noble-Born and low-born.

iv)  The inspired leadership of the early Chishti masters, their aloofness from the court and their unwillingness to accept state patronage, their rejection of the orthodoxy and extreme attitudes of the ulema, and, finally, the combining of the simple precepts of Islam with the Sufi teachings contributed to the popularity of the Chishti order.

v) The popularity of the early Chishtis rose after their life time as the cult of saints began to develop in the later centuries around their shrines (dargahs). Later, legend-makers and writers of literature sometimes attributed the popularity of the early Chishti Sufis to their ability to perform miracles. In the subsequent centuries, traditions were invented to represent the early Chistis as being actively involved in the conversion of the non-Muslims who were believed to have been drawn to them due to their alleged miracle-performing powers. However, the early Chishti Sufis disapproved of the display of miraculous powers, though they did believe in the possibility of miracles. They did not consider the miracles of primary importance in Sufi teaching and practice. Nevertheless, the miracle stories about the early Chistis played an important role in enhancing the popularity of the Chishti shrines and the

Posthumous popularity of the Sufis themselves.

Q.  Write a note on the interaction between Sufism and the bhakti movement.

A.  The interaction between the two is clear from the remarkable similarities between the two. These similarities included an emphasis on monotheism, on the role of the spiritual guide (pir or guru), and on mystical union with God. Moreover, both the Bhakti saints and many Sufi orders were critical of the orthodox elements in Hinduism and Islam respectively. one prominent example of the influence of the bhakti movement on Sufism is offered by the Rishi order of the Sufis in Kashmir. Here, the non-conformist ideas of the famous 14th-century women bhakti-preacher, Lal Ded exercised a profound influence on the founder of the order Shaikh Nuruddin Wali.

              The interaction between the Chishti Sufis and the Nath Panth yogis during the sultanate period is a well-established fact. The movement of the nathpanthis had attained considerable popularity in Northern India, in particular among the lower sections of the society, during the 13th and 14th centuries. The nathpanthi yogis frequently visited the khanqahs of the leading chisti shaikhs and had discussions with them on the nature of mysticism. The translation of the Yoga treatise Amrit-Kund into Persian from Sanskrit even before the advent of Sufism in India led to the adoption of may meditative practices by the Sufis. The early chistis approved some of the ethical values of the nathpanthi yogis and their corprate way of life. Like the Chishtis, the nathpanthis had opened their doors to all sections of society, irrespective of caste distinctions. The common outlook of the two popular movements provided a basis for mutual understanding between Muslims and

Non-Muslims. 

              The adaptability of the Chishtis in the non-Muslim environment of India released syncretic forces and led to cultural synthesis. Many early chisti spoke in Hindawi and composed verses in it. The Chisti practice of sama provided the basis for a syncretic musical tradition such as of religious songs called qawwali which is said to have begun with Amir Khusrau.

Q.  Provide a brief account of the development of Hindi literature during the 13th to 15th centuries. 12

A.     This is the second phase in the growth of Hindi literature which began in the 14th-15th centuries. Various streams of the bhakti movement exercised a profound influence on the Hindi literature of this phase. This phase of Hindi literature has been characterized as -Bhakti Kala (Age of devotion) and it continued till the Mughal period. This phase which began with Kabir marked the richest flowering of Hindi literature. The bhakti poets of the period were two-fold: the saguna poets (who believed in god with

human form and attributes) and nirguna poets (who believed in non-incarnate Absolute God). 

          Kabir headed the nirguna poets. He used his strong and rough verses to present a powerful denunciation of various rituals. Another important characteristic of Kabir's short poetical utterances is the use of 'upside-down language' which consisted of a series of paradoxes and enigmas. It has been pointed out that Kabir inherited this from the nathpanthis and adapted it for an effective rhetorical and teaching device. Kabir and other "low-caste" monotheistic poets (Sen, Pipa, Dhanna, Raidas, etc.)expressed themselves in oral style. The poetry they composed forms a part of oral literature. Their verses were compiled much later - the earliest instance of their written compositions are from the Adi Granth in 1604. Being illiterate, they had no direct access to the Sanskrit literature. They expressed themselves in the local languages of the people. They composed Doha ( short rhymed poem). The poetry of Kabir and other saints of the 15th century played the most important role in transforming the Hindi vernaculars into a literary language.

         The poets belonging to the conventional Vaishnava bhakti movement in North India were mostly Brahmans and were familiar with Brahmanical scriptures and Sanskrit texts. Most of them were either devotee of Rama or Krishna. The greatest poet of Hindi literature was Tulsidas (A.D.1532-1623) who wrote the famous Ram Charit Manas in the Awadhi dialect of Hindi. Among the Krishna bhakti poets, Vidyapati composed verses about the love of Radha and Krisha in Maithili Hindi. The influence of his lyrical poetry was felt in Bengal and some Bengali poets imitated his songs. Vrindavan near Mathura emerged as a center of Vaishnava bhakti poetry by the end of the Sultanate period. These poets were devotees of Krishna and composed their verses in Braj bhasha. The greatest of these poets was Surdas (c. 1483-1563). Another great name in the Vaishnava bhakti poetry was that of Mira Bai (c. 1498-1543).

Sufi Contribution to Hindi Literature

               Sufi saints and other scholars of this period contributed substantially to the growth of Hindi literature. The Chisti Sufis made use of Hindi devotional songs in Sama (ecstatic singing and dancing) sessions. Sufi mystical and allegorical meanings were

given to various Hindi terms such as "Gopis", "Raslila", etc. The Sufi poets combined Islamic mysticism with imaginative use of Indian love tales, popular legends, and stories. Mullah Daud 's Chandayan (written in c. 1379) is the earliest of such poetical works. literary compositions of the Sufi poets also contributed to the corporation of many Arabic and Persian words into Hindi literature & thus played an important role in cultural and literary synthesis.

Q.  Enumerate the position of women in the Sultanate period. 

A.  There was almost no change in the lifestyle of the upper-caste Hindu women during this period. Women were subordinate to men in every walk of life - as daughter, wife and even after her husband's death (under her eldest son's care). Birth of a daughter was looked down upon since they were considered as a symbol of dishonor for the father. Their main duty was to produce progeny, especially the male child. They were strictly confined in the 'antahpura' (inner sanctum). The ancient rules enjoining early marriages for girls and the wife's duties to her husband and his kula (lineage) were continuously stressed. 

            Annulment of marriages took place in special circumstances such as desertion, disease or mental disorder. The position of Muslim women was also very much similar to their Hindu counterparts. As for female education, the women of poor classes did not have a chance for education, but the higher strata women seem to have received education and training. The example of Raziya shows that Muslim aristocracy did impart education to their daughters as well. The practice of Sati was prevalent but was confined to the upper strata of society. The degraded position of the widow seems to be the most important factor that encouraged sati. Among the Rajputs, the practice of Jauhar was also prevalent. In the event of an imminent defeat, their women were set on fire. 

          During this period among Hindus, the widow had the right to the property of a sonless husband, provided the property was not commonly held. The widow was not merely the guardian of this property but had the full right to dispose of it. Though in the face of these commentaries, it seems that the property rights of women improved in the Hindu society, but this could have hardly applied in a uniform manner all over the country. 

          During this time, purdah became a privilege of upper classes. Both Hindu and Muslim aristocracy guarded their women by keeping them hidden within the walled space of the antahpura and the harem while the poor (Muslim) women used burqa to cover their bodies.

Q.  Trace the growth and development of Persian, Urdu and Arabic languages and literature in India between the 13th and 15th centuries.  12

Q.  Provide a brief survey of Persian sources for Delhi Sultanate. 

A.  Arabic languages & Literature - Although attention was paid to the cultivation of the Arabic language in India after the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate, the Turkish rulers were more influenced by the Persian language. As a consequence, the production of literary works in Arabic was restricted to a small circle of Islamic scholars and philosophers. Sultan Feroz Shah Tughluq (1351-1388) patronized many Arabic scholars and it was under his patronage that the great Arabic dictionary - the Qamus - by Majduddin Ferozabadi was produced. After the disintegration of the Delhi Sultanate, the rulers of many provincial kingdoms also patronized Arabic learning. 

Persian Language and Literature - Amir Khusrau played a pivotal role in the development and spread of Persian literature. The reign of the Khaljis was a glorious period from the viewpoint of the growth of Persian literature in India. Amir Khusrau was a prolific and versatile writer and is said to have composed half a million verses and ninety-nine works on different themes. His poetry consisted of a great variety of forms - lyric, ode, epic, and elegy. His poetry was essentially Indian in sentiment though he followed Persian models in technique. Thus he created a new style of Persian which came to be known as sabaq-i Hindi or the Indian style. Five literary masterpieces composed by him are Mutla-ul Anwar, Shirin Khusrau, Laila Majnun, Ayina-I Sikandari and Hasht Bihisht. He also wrote gazals, these compositions show the great lyrical talent of his poetry. Amir Khusrau also wrote historical masnavis (narrative poems) which have great literary and historical value. Miftah-uI Futuh deals with the military successes of Sultan Jalaluddin Khalji. 'Ashiqa' is the story of romantic love between Khizr Khan, the eldest son of Sultan Alauddin Khalji and Deval Rani, daughter of Rai Karan, the Raja of Gujarat. In Nuh Siphr (The Nine Skies) he gives a poetical description of Sultan Qutbuddin Mubarak Khalji's reign. This work also contains references to contemporary social and religious conditions. The Tugqluq Nama describes Ghiyasuddin Tughluq's rise to power.

Another historical work written by Amir Khusrau is Khazain-ul Futuh in which he gives an account of Alauddin Khalji's conquests in the South.

             Hasan Dehlawi was another famous Persian poet during the Sultanate period. He was a friend of Amir Khusrau. He was one of the court poets of Sultan Alauddin Khalji. The quality of his ghazals earned him the title of S'adi of Hindustan. Poetical writings in Persian continued during the [reigns of the Tughluq and Lodi Sultans. The expansion of the Delhi Sultanate led to the extension of the Persian literature to various parts of India. The emergence of provincial kingdoms following the disintegration of the Delhi Sultanate also contributed to this process. With the foundation of the Bahmani kingdom in the Deccan, many Persian poets and scholars migrated to Gulbarga where they were patronized by the Bahmani Sultans.

Historical Works in Persian

                 One of the important contributions of Persian literature during the Sultanate period (and later during the Mughal period) was in the sphere of history writing. Many historians wrote the history of the period in the Persian language. For the history of the

Sultanate, we have to depend largely on the accounts provided by the court chroniclers of this period. The most important of these historians were Minaj us Siraj (author of the Tabaqat-i Nasiri), Isami (author of the Futuh-us Salatin), Shams Siraj Afif (author of the Tarikh-i Feroz Shahi). Among the Sultans Feroz, Shah Tughluq wrote the Futuhat-i Ferozshahi. But the greatest historian of this period was Ziauddin Barani. His Tarikh-i Ferozshahi is the most valuable work of history written during-the period. Barani completed this work in 1357. This book was named after  Feroz Shah Tughluq.

Urdu Language and Literature - by the end of the 14th century, Urdu was emerging as an independent language. Like Hindi, the basic structure of Urdu consisted of Khari Boli - a mixture of various dialects spoken in Delhi and surrounding regions. Delhi, during this period, was ideally situated for the growth of a synthetic language since, on the one hand, it was surrounded. by people speaking different dialects and, on the other hand, it had a Persian speaking ruling elite. Thus, Urdu adopted Persian script and Persian literary tradition but by incorporating the basic structure of Hindi

dialects evolved an individuality of its own.

             In its initial form, Urdu appears to have been devised as an improvised speech to enable the Persian speaking Turkish ruling class and soldiers to communicate with the local people including Muslim converts. This new common language took a century to acquire a concrete shape and came to be called "Hindavi" by Amir Khusrau. Hindavi thus forms the basis of both Hindi and Urdu. Amir Khusrau composed verses in Hindavi (using Persian script) and thus laid the foundation of Urdu literature. However, it was in the Deccan that Urdu first acquired a standardized literary form and came to be known as Dakhini during the 15th century. It developed first under the Bahmani rule and flourished in the Bijapur and Golconda kingdoms. Gesu Daraz's Miraj-ul Ashiqin is the earliest work in Dakhini Urdu. Till the 18th century, Urdu was called by various names such as "Hindavi", "Dakhini", "Hindustani" or "Rekhta" (which means mingling several things to produce something new). In its developed form, Dakhini Urdu traveled

back to the north and soon became popular during the Mughal period, It was during the period of the disintegration of the Mughal empire in the 18th century that the Urdu literature reached great heights.

Q.  Trace the growth and development of regional languages between 13-15 century - 12

A.  One of the important features of the literary history of this period is the development of Literature in regional languages in various parts of India. Regional languages that grew rapidly during this period in northern India included Hindi, Punjabi, Bengali, Assamese, Oriya, Marathi and Gujarati. 

Punjabi Literature - 

            'TWO distinct trends developed in the history of the Punjabi literature during the period between the beginning of the 13th century and the beginning of the sixteenth century. On the one hand, this period was marked by the growth of Sufi and bhakti

poetry and, on the other, by Heroic ballads and folk literature. The hymns composed by Guru Nanak in the sixteenth century imparted a proper literary form to the language. The second Sikh Guru Angad gave the Punjabi language a distinct script called Gurumukhi. The hymns composed by Guru Nanak were later incorporated in the Adi Granth by the fifth Sikh Guru Arjun in 1604.

Bengali Literature

       Folk songs called Charyapads composed between the 10th and 12th century are the earliest specimens of Bengali language. By the fifteenth, century, three main trends developed in the Bengali literature -

(i)  Vaishnav bhakti poetry

(ii) translations and free adaptations of the epics, and,

(iii) Mangala kavya

        The first great Vaishnav bhakti poet was Chandi das (1512-32) who patronized Bengali literature. TWO Bengali poets Kavindra and Srikaranandi translated the Mahabharta into Bengali verse during their reigns. In the early years of the fifteenth century, Kritivasa Ojha produced a Bengali poetical contemporary of Chandidas, Vidyapathi composed his devotional songs in the Maithili dialect but many of his songs were later absorbed-into Bengali under the influence of the Vaishnava movement. Chaitanya and his movement gave further impetus to the growth of the Vaishnava literature in Bengali. The second major trend in the history of Bengali literature which began from the early fifteenth century drew inspiration from the epics and other  Sanskrit scriptures. The third trend in the Bengali literature consisted of the emergence of Mangala kavya. These are sectarian political narratives and focus on the conflicts and rivalries among gods and goddesses. But they do contain humanistic elements, too, since they highlight popular aspirations and sufferings. 

Assamese Literature

Hema Sarasvati was the first poet of the Assamese language. She composed Prahladacharita and1 Hara-Gauri Samvada during the later part of the 13th century. Her contemporary poet was Harihara Vipra who chose episodes from the Ramayana and the Mahabharata for his poetry. The growth of the vaishnava bhakti movement under Sankaradeva in the second part of the fifteenth century made a considerable contribution to the Assamese literature. Kirtana ghosa is regarded as the most important Vaishnava religious text written in the Assamese language. It is an anthology of devotional songs, most of which were composed by Sankardeva but other poets also made their contributions. Sankaradeva also wrote many dramas (Ankiya Nat) which were based on the Purana episodes. 

Oriya Literature 

           It was during the 13th-14th centuries that the Oriya language assumed a literary character. Saraladasa (14th century) was the first great poet of Orissa. He composed the Oriya Mahabharata which is regarded as a great epic by the people of Orissa. Oriya literature began to enter into a new phase from the beginning of the 16th - century when the Vaishnava bhakti movement grew there under Chaitanya's influence. Many of Chaitanya's disciples translated or adapted Sanskrit works on bhakti into the Oriya language. One of the close associates of Chaitanya was Jagannath Das who became the greatest Oriya literary figure of his time. His Oriya translation of the Bhagavata Purana became popular among the people. 

Marathi Literature

Early Marathi literature was dominated by Saiva nathpanthis. Two earliest Marathi texts - Viveka darpana and the Gorakhagita -belonged to. the Nath Panth tradition. The Varkari bhakti saint-poet of Maharashtra further developed the bhakti literature in the Marathi language. The first among them was Jnanadeva (13th century). He wrote a commentary on the Bhagavad Gita. Another saint-poet belonging to the varkari tradition was Namdev (1270-1350). He composed a large number of Abhangas (short lyrical poems) in Marathi. He traveled to the north and later his verses were included in the Sikh scripture, the Adi Granth. Two other great saint-poets of medieval Maharashtra, Eknath (1548-1600) and Tukaram (1598-1649) belong to the Mughal period: they also made substantial contributions to the growth of the Marathi literature.

Gujarati Literature

Both Rajasthani and Gujarati languages emerged from old Western Rajasthani. During this phase, two main literary forms developed in the Gujarati literature - the prabhanda or the narrative poem and the muktaka or the short poem. The second phase in the history of the Gujarati literature began in the late fifteenth century with the spread of the Vaishnava bhakti poetry. Narasimha Mehta (1414-1480) was a great Gujarati bhakti poet. He made use of his poetry to popularize Vaishnava bhakti in Gujarat.