13th Part
Q. Discuss in brief the role of merchants, Sarraf and brokers in commercial activities.
A. Brokers - Brokers worked as middlemen in various commercial activities and transactions. With increasing inter-regional and foreign trade they became crucial. Merchants from foreign lands and distant regions heavily depended on them. The need for brokers in India was mainly due to (i) centres of production for the same commodities were scattered all over the country; (ii) individual output of these centres was small (some centres specialised in particular commodities only), and (iii) large number of buyers competing for the same commodities in the same markets. Brokers' fees or commission was not strictly fixed. It depended on the commodity and the efforts of the broker to strike the deal or the labour involved in procuring the commodity. Besides helping their clients in procuring and selling goods, the brokers played a key role in the organisation of production. Most of the money advanced (dadni) to the artisans were made through brokers.
Q. Give a detailed account of inland and foreign trade under the Mughals.
Q. Discuss briefly the nature of inland trade during the 16-17th centuries.
A. Inland trade is at local, regional, inter-regional levels and coastal trade.
Coastal Trade - Because of long distances and slow-moving transport system interregional trade was also conducted through the sea route involving a large number of coastal areas. This trade was most prominent on the western coast. The eastern coast also had substantial trading operations. On the western coast between May and September, the merchant boats in convoys under protection plied two or three times between Goa and Cochin and Goa and Cambay. They carried stuff like wheat, oil, pulses, sugar, textiles and miscellaneous other items. Ships coming from Malacca and the east were usually joined somewhere off Ceylon by coasting boats from Bengal and the Coromandal coast, and the whole fleet was convoyed under protection to Cochin. Boats laden with copper, zinc, tin, tobacco, spices and chintz came from Coromandal coast to the coastal towns of Bengal. Coromandal coast, in turn, received copper, mercury, cinnabar, pepper etc., from Gujarat, and spices from Malabar.
Foreign Trade - For centuries India had maintained trading relations with other countries. During the 16th and 17th centuries also India had a flourishing trade with a large number of foreign countries. Foreign trade during this period increased substantially with the coming of the Europeans. Most of this trade was in the form of exports of Indian goods. The imports were very small. Exports included
Textiles, saltpetre and indigo formed the major share of Indian exports. Other important items were sugar, opium spices and other sundry commodities.
Textiles - textile production in India had reached new heights during this period. The increasing exports contributed to the increase in production. Before the coming of the Europeans, the main purchasers of Indian cotton textiles were the Mughals, Khorasanis, Iraqis and Armenians who carried them to Central Asia, Persia and Turkey. These goods purchased from all parts of India were taken by land route via Lahore. Later, Dutch, English companies also joined in and transported textiles through the sea.
Saltpetre - Saltpetre was one of the important ingredients for making gunpowder was much in demand in Europe. In the 17th century, the Dutch started exporting it from Coromandal. Soon the English also followed.
Indigo - Indigo for blue dye was produced in most of northern India - Punjab, Sind and Gujarat. The indigo from Sarkhej (Gujarat) and Bayana (near Agra) was much in demand for exports. Prior to its supply to Europe, large quantities of this commodity
were exported to the Persian Gulf from Gujarat, and to Aleppo markets from Lahore.
A large number of other commodities were exported from India. Opium was bought by the French, the Dutch and the English Companies. The main sources of supply were Bihar and Malwa. The Bengal sugar was also taken in bulk by the Dutch and English Companies. Ginger was exported to Europe by the Dutch. Turmeric, ginger and aniseed (saunf) were exported by the Armenians.
Imports -
Silver was the main item of import as it was brought to finance the purchases of European Companies and other merchants from different parts of Europe and Asia. Copper, too, was imported in some quantity. Lead and mercury were other important commodities brought to India. Silk & porcelain from China were imported into India by the English. Good quality wine, carpets and perfumes were brought from Persia. Some items like cut glass, watches, silver utensils, woollen clothes and small weapons from Europe were in demand by the aristocracy in India. Horses from Central Asia were imported in large number for military uses.
Q. Irrigation system under the Mughals
A. Indian agriculture was heavily dependent on rains for irrigation needs. Apart from rainwater, a number of devices were used for artificial irrigation. Well-irrigation was the most common method employed throughout the length and breadth of the country. A number of methods were used to lift water from wells depending on the water table and technology available. Lakes, tanks and reservoirs of water were also used uniformly in all parts of the country. In South India, this was the most prevalent method used for irrigation. Here the dams were made over the rivers. The massive Madag lake built by Vijaynagar rulers is a marvel of civil engineering of the time. Rajasthan is another region where large reservoirs for storing water abound. Rajsamand and Jaisamand were other important lakes built in Mewar in the 17th century. Similar reservoirs created with the help of dams in Marwar and Amber regions were Balsan and Mansagar respectively. Almost every cluster of villages had smaller reservoirs and lakes where rainwater was stored. In Northern plains, canals figure prominently as a means of irrigation. The Nahr Faiz built during Shah Jahan's reign was around 150 miles in length. It carried the water from the Yamuna to a large area. Another canal, around 100 miles long, was cut from the river Ravi near Lahore.
Q. Discuss the activities of the personnel of trade involved during the 17th century.
A. The personnel of trade involved during the 17th century were the merchants, Sarraf, moneylenders and brokers. The activities were -
Merchants - During this period certain groups and castes dominated in particular regions.
Banjaras - Banjaras were a trading group who carried on trade between villages and between villages and towns in a region and even at the inter-regional level. They were an important link for rural-urban trade. The Banjaras confined their trading activities to some limited commodities like grain, pulses, sugar, salt, etc. They procured a number of animals (mainly oxen to carry the load) and moved from place to place buying and selling goods. The Bdnras operated in many parts of North India, but there were other similar traders known by different names. The Nahmardis was one such group of traders operating in Sindh. Other such nomadic traders were the Bhotiyas operating between the Himalayas and plains.
Baniyas - The Baniyas, unlike Banjaras, were involved in all sorts of trading activities. At the village level, they traded in grain and other agricultural produce. They also acted as moneylenders, giving loans to peasants and other people including state officials and nobles. In towns, they dealt in grain, textiles, gold, silver, jewels, spices and sundry other commodities. Some even owned ships for trading.
Q. Provide an account of the various categories of merchant groups associated with trading activities during the 16th 17th centuries.
A. Merchants - During this period certain groups and castes dominated in particular regions.
Banjaras - Banjaras were a trading group who carried on trade between villages and between villages and towns in a region and even at the inter-regional level. They were an important link for rural-urban trade. The Banjaras confined their trading activities to some limited commodities like grain, pulses, sugar, salt, etc. They procured a number of animals (mainly oxen to carry the load) and moved from place to place buying and selling goods. The Bdnras operated in many parts of North India, but there were other similar traders known by different names. The Nahmardis was one such group of traders operating in Sindh. Other such nomadic traders were the Bhotiyas operating between the Himalayas and plains.
Baniyas - The Baniyas, unlike Banjaras, were involved in all sorts of trading activities. At the village level, they traded in grain and other agricultural produce. They also acted as moneylenders, giving loans to peasants and other people including state officials and nobles. In towns, they dealt in grain, textiles, gold, silver, jewels, spices and sundry other commodities. Some even owned ships for trading.
In the region of Punjab, the Khatris were a major trading community. The multiples were an important trading community of Delhi, parts of Punjab and Sindh in the 13-17th centuries. The Bohras were important merchants of 'Gujarat. They were mostly Muslims. They were an urban community mainly based in Gujarat and other western parts. Apart from Gujarat, they had some settlements in Ujjain and Burhanpur.
South India -
In the southern part of India, various merchant groups played prominent roles. The Chetti was one such group. The merchants along the Coromandal coast up to Orissa were known as Kling. The Komatis were the merchants belonging to a trading caste. They mainly worked as brokers for, textiles and we're suppliers of various products from the hinterland to the port towns on the southern coast. They were mainly Telugu speaking. Like the Chetties another merchant group called Chulias were also divided into four sub-groups. Of these, the Marakkayar were the wealthiest merchants dealing in the coastal and South-East Asian trade. Among the Muslims, the Golkunda Muslims were involved in overseas shipping. They were prominent in the south of Madras and were the main merchants in the Bay of Bengal region.
Q. Give a brief account of the agricultural production during Mughal India.
A. Agricultural production under Mughals include Cash crops, Food crops and --
Fruits, Vegetables and Spices
Horticulture seems to have reached new heights during the Mughal period. The Mughal Emperors and the nobles planted lavish orchards. A number of fruits available today were introduced in India during the 16th and 17th centuries by Portuguese that includes Pineapple, Papaya and cashew-nuts. Cherries were brought from Kabul and grown in Kashmir through grafting. The practice of grafting was in order to improve the quality of a number of fruits. Quality of oranges other types of citrus fruits, apricots, mangoes and a host of other fruits was greatly improved through grafting. Coconut was grown not only along the coastal region but also inland.
Seeds of different varieties of melons and grapes were brought from Kabul and successfully grown in the gardens of Emperors and nobles. Ordinary melons were grown everywhere on riverbeds by the peasants.
The Southern coast of India witnessed large scale spice export to various regions in Asia and Europe. Pepper, clove, cardamom were plentiful. Ginger and Turmeric were grown extensively. The Dutch and English purchased large quantities for export. Saffron grown in Kashmir was celebrated for its colour and flavour. Pan (betel leaf) was produced in many areas.
Q. Write an essay on non-agricultural production during the Mughal period.
A. Mineral Production
The salt was the essential commodity in which India seems to have been self- sufficient. The sources of salt were the Sambhar lake in Rajputana, the Punjab rock-salt mines and sea-water. Sea salt was made mainly in Sind, the Rann of Cutch, other coasts of Gujarat, Malabar, Mysore and Bengal, etc. Since salt was not
available in all parts of the country, it was one of the major articles of trade at the regional and inter-regional levels.
Saltpetre was one of the most important mineral products. It was in great demand by the Europeans. It was primarily used as an ingredient for gun powder. Initially, saltpetre was-extracted at Ahmedabad. Baroda, etc. But since the supply could not meet the demand, it started to be made even in the Delhi-Agra region. However, by the second half of the seventeenth century, Patna in Bihar became an important centre for procuring saltpetre.
Rajasthan was the main centre for copper production where copper mines existed (at Khetri). The bulk of the copper was used for minting copper coins. Small and big household objects were also manufactured.
Iron was the most commonly found metal. Iron mines were widely distributed in the north, east, west, central and southern parts of the country The iron found in the south was converted into steel. Iron was used for making ploughs, axes, nails, screws, swords, daggers. The steel made in the south, especially in Golconda, was used for the manufacture of Damascus swords, admired all over the world.
Diamond Mining
Diamond mining was carried out in some parts of India, but the diamond mines of Golconda were most famous. Other places included Biragarh in Berar, Panna in Madhya Pradesh, Khokhra or Chhotanagpur in Bihar.
Wood-Based Crafts
The means of surface transport made of wood included palanquins and bullock-drawn carts. Both were made in a wide variety of styles and the ones used by rich were carved and decorated. A large number of boats and sea-going ships were always needed since India has a long coastline and north India is crisscrossed by a large number of navigable rivers. The ports on the Arabian sea as well as the Bay of Bengal were important ship-building centres. When the Europeans intensified their activities, they got their ships repaired at these places. They found Indian ships better suited for eastern waters and, hence, they purchased ships built in India. Thus the shipbuilding industry received a considerable boost because of the rising European demand throughout the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries.
Other uses of wood were to make doors, windows, and a large number of household furniture such as boxes, bedsteads, etc. The rich had their furniture made from high-quality wood.
Miscellaneous Crafts
Stone-cutting was an important craft as stones were widely used in the construction of houses, palaces, forts, temples, etc. Indian stone-masons were known for their skill. Other items of non-agricultural production were leather goods such as shoes, saddles, book-covers, etc., manufactured all over the country.
Paper
Paper was manufactured during the period under review in a number of centres, such as Ahmedabad, Daulatabad, Lahore, Sialkot, Biharsharif near Patna, etc. Ahmedabad paper was of several varieties and was exported to Arabia, Turkey and
Persia. The paper from Kashmir was also famous.
Pottery
Every large village in India had its potter and pottery for everyday use was made all over the country. Apart from the above coarse pottery, fine crockery was also made.
Glass manufacturing was also undertaken in several parts of the country. Other miscellaneous items produced by Indian craftsmen included soap, objects of ivory and shell, articles of the horn, etc. Several crafts were forest-based. Among them, lac was used for the manufacture of bangles, varnishing doors and windows and toys and for preparing a red dye. It was extracted from forests in Bengal, Bihar, Assam, Orissa, Malwa, Gujarat, Malabar, etc. Bengal lac was considered to be the best. In Surat, bangles and toys were made of lac. It was also used for sealings. Various contemporary authorities refer to pearl fisheries being practised in the sea waters along the southern coast.
Q. Write a note on the network of overseas trade routes during the 16th-17th century.
A. The sea routes on both the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal were well frequented. Before the discovery of the sea route via the Cape of Good Hope, the most frequented sea routes in the north were:-
a) from Cambay, Surat, Thatta to the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea;
b) from other parts like Dabhor, Cochin and Calicut to Aden and Mocha. At Mocha - certain commodities were carried via Red sea and then through overland route to Alexandria via Cairo. Alexandria was another point of distribution of commodities into European countries. With the rounding of the Cape of Good
Hope, the European countries got new openings. Now they no more depended on Alexandria or Aleppo. Instead, they dealt directly with India and South Asian countries.
As for Eastern seas, since long the Indian merchants were having seaborne trade with China and the Indonesia Archipelago. From Hugli, Masulipatnam and Pulicat, commodities were sent directly to Achin, Batavia and Malacca. Through the Malacca straits, merchants used to go as far as Macao and Canton in China.
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