6th Part
Q. Describe the central administration of the Mughal empire.
Q. Discuss provincial and local administration under the Mughals.
A. Central Administration -
Emperor - The emperor is at the center of Mughal administration. The concept of the divine origin of the Emperor was propagated. All officers in the Mughal administration owed their position and power to the Emperor. Their appointment, promotion, demotion, and termination were subject to the ruler's personal preference and whims.
Wakil and Wazir -
The position of the wazir revived under the early Mughals. Babur's wazir Nizamuddin Muhammad Khalifa enjoyed both the civil and military powers. Humayun's wazir Hindu Beg also virtually enjoyed great powers. Akbar took away the financial powers of the wakil and entrusted it into the hands of the diwan kul (Finance Minister). Separation of finance gave a jolt to the wakil's power. However, the wakil continued to enjoy the highest place in the Mughal bureaucratic hierarchy despite the reduction in his powers.
Diwani Kul -
Akbar strengthened the office of the diwan by entrusting the revenue powers to the diwan. The chief diwan (diwani kul) was made responsible for revenue and finances. His primary duty was to supervise the imperial treasury and check all accounts. He personally inspected all transactions and payments in all departments. He maintained direct contact with the provincial diwans and their functioning was put under his vigil. His seal and signatures were necessary for the validation of all official papers involving revenue. The entire revenue collection and expenditure machinery of the Empire was under his charge. No fresh order of appointment or promotion could be affected without his seal.
The central revenue ministry was divided into may departments to look after the specific needs of the Empire. For example diwani khalisa, diwani tan (for cash salary), diwani jagir, diwani buyutat (royal household), etc. Each branch was further subdivided into several sections 'manned by a secretary, superintendents, and clerks. The mustaufi was the auditor, and the mushrif was the chief accountant. The khazanadar looked after the Imperial treasury.
Mir Bakhshi -
All orders of appointments of mansabdars and their salary papers were endorsed and passed by him. He personally supervised the branding of the horses (dagh) and checked the muster-roll (chehra) of the soldiers. On the basis of his verification, the amount of the salary was certified. Mir bakhshi placed all matters pertaining to the military department before the Emperor. The new entrants, seeking service, were presented before 'the Emperor by the mir bakhshi. He dealt directly with provincial bakhshis and waqainavis. He accompanied the Emperor on tours, pleasure trips, hunting expeditions, battlefields, etc. The mir bakhshi was assisted by other bakhshis at the central level.
Mir Saman -
The mir saman was the officer in charge of the royal karkhanas. He was also known as khan saman. He was the chief executive officer responsible for the purchase of all kinds of articles and their storage for the royal household. Another important duty was to supervise the manufacture of different articles, be it weapons of war or articles of luxury. He was directly under the Emperor but for sanction of money and auditing of accounts, he was to contact the diwan.
Sadr-us Sudur -
The sadr-us sudur was the head of the ecclesiastical department. His chief duty was to protect the laws of the shariat. He was also connected with the distribution of charities - both cash (wazifa) and land grants. He supervised the appointment of qazis and muftis. He supervised the assignment of allowances and looked after the charitable grants. He also looked into whether the grants were given to the right persons and utilized properly. He scrutinized applications for all such grants, both fresh and renewals, and presented before the Emperor for sanction. Alms were also distributed through him.
Qazi-ul Quzzat -
The chief qazi was known as qazi-ul quzzat. He was the head of the judiciary. His principal duty was to administer the Shariat law both in civil and criminal cases. In the capacity of the chief qazi,' he looked into the appointment of the qazis in the suba, sarkar, pargana and town levels. There was a separate qazi for the army also. The muhtasibs (censor of public morals) was to ensure the general observance of the rules of morality. His job was to keep in check the forbidden practices- wine drinking. use of bhang and other intoxicants, gambling, etc. In addition, he also performed some secular duties - examining weights and measures, enforcing fair prices, etc.
In 1580, Akbar divided the Empire into twelve subas (later on, three more were added). Each suba was divided into a number of sarkars and these were further divided Into parganas and mahals. During Shah Jahan's reign, another administrative unit chakla came into existence. It was a cluster of a number of parganas.
Provincial Governor
The governor of a suba (subadar) was directly appointed by the Emperor. Among the duties of the subadar, the most important one was to look after the welfare of the people and the army. He was responsible for the general law and order problems in the suba. A subadar would encourage agriculture, trade, and commerce. He was supposed to take up welfare activities like construction of sarais, gardens, wells, water reservoirs, etc. He was to take steps to enhance the revenue of the state.
Diwan
The provincial diwan was appointed by the Emperor. He was an independent officer answerable to the Centre. He was the head of the revenue department in the suba. The provincial diwan supervised the revenue collection in the suba and maintained
accounts of all expenditures incurred in the form of salaries of the officials and subordinates in the suba. The diwan was also to take steps to increase the area under cultivation. In many cases, advance loans were given to the peasants through his office. A roznamcha (daily register) was maintained by the diwan which carried entries of the amount that was deposited in the royal treasury by the revenue officials and zamindars. A large number of clerks worked under him.
Bakhshi
The Bakshi was appointed by the imperial court at the recommendation of the mir bakhshi. He performed exactly the same military functions as were performed by his counterpart at the Centre. He was responsible for checking and inspecting the horses and soldiers maintained by the mansabdars in the suba. He issued the pay bills of both the mansabdars and the soldiers.
Darogha-i Dak and the Secret Services
The imperial postal system was established for sending instructions to the far-flung areas of the Empire. The same channel was used for receiving information. At every suba headquarters, darogha-i dak was appointed for this purpose. His duty was to pass on letters through the postal runners to the court. For this purpose, a number of dak chowkis were maintained throughout the Empire where runners were stationed who carried he post to the next chowki. At the provincial level, waq'ai navis and waqai nigars were appointed to supply the reports directly to the Emperor. Besides, there were also sawanih nigar to provide confidential reports to the Emperor.
LOCAL ADMINISTRATION -
Sarkars
At the sarkar level, there were two important functionaries, the faujdar and the amalguzar.
Faujdar
He was the executive head of the sarkar. He was not only appointed at the sarkar level but sometimes within a sarkar a number of faujdars existed. At times their jurisdiction spread over two full sarkars. His primary duty was to safeguard the life and property of the residents of the area under his jurisdiction. He was to ensure safe passage to traders within his jurisdiction. As the chief executive of the region, the faujdar was to keep vigil over the recalcitrant zamindars. In special circumstances, he was to help the amalguzar in matters of revenue collection.
Amalguzar
The most important revenue collector was the amil or amalguzar. His primary duty was to assess and supervise the revenue collection through other subordinate officials. A good amil was supposed to increase the land under cultivation and induce the peasants to pay revenue willingly without coercion. All accounts were to be maintained by him. Daily receipts and expenditure reports were sent by him to the provincial diwan.
Thanedar
The thana was a place where the army was stationed for the preservation of law and order. They were to arrange provisions for the army as well. These thanas were established specifically in disturbed areas and around the cities. Its head was designated as thanedar. He was appointed at the recommendation of the subadar and diwan.
Pargana Administration
The parganas were the administrative units below the sarkar. The shiqqdar was the executive officer of the pargana and assisted the amils in revenue collection. The amil looked after the revenue collection at the pargana level also. His duties were similar to those of the amalguzar at the sarkar level.
Q. Turco-Mongol Concept of Sovereignty
Q. What was the Turco-Mongol concept of sovereignty? To what extent were Turco-Mongol traditions followed by the Mughal emperors?
A. Chingiz khan had borrowed his divine theory of sovereignty from the Uighurs, the Mongols themselves believed in the absolute power of the Khan. Nonetheless, the division of the Empire among the ruler's sons for facilitating administration with all its rigors and satiating the desires of governance among princes was the cardinal principle of the Mongol concept of sovereignty. But Timur followed the concept of absolute sovereignty.
Timur who had accepted the nominal overlordship of a descendant of Chingiz Khan. Timur himself never used any title higher than amir. Though Timur's successor Shahrukh assumed the title Padshah and Sultan-ul Azam, the idea of the nominal overlordship of the Khan remained alive down to the time of Abu Saeed Mirza. However, the existence of puppet Khans was a political necessity for Timur. Timur did not belong to the royal family of Chingiz and in the given situation, Timur's right to accession was likely to be challenged by the Mongols.
These Khans were kept confined to a particular locality and the only royal prerogative enjoyed by them was the manshurs (orders) and certain coins of Timur carried the names of these "prisoners". Nevertheless, Timur continued to maintain his supremacy over the Khans. No sooner had he acquired necessary power and secured enough support from the Chaghatai nobles than he proclaimed himself sovereign in 1370 with the title of sahib-i qiran (a title given to a ruler who had ruled for forty years). The coronation ceremony was held with all royal grandeur for Timur alone. Timur never "rendered honours to the Khans in the presence of the troops and in solemn surroundings. Honours due to the monarch were always personally received by Timur". Being a firm believer in absolutism, Timur never attached undue importance to the consultative assembly (qurultai). Besides, he considered himself to be the temporal as well as spiritual leader. The concept of sovereignty was stretched by him to its logical end. He announced that he "received direct revelations from the Almighty", thus giving divine sanctions to his enterprise. Thus, the practice of installing puppet Khans was merely a political game which had been played by Timur and his successors to mobilize the support of Mongol forces and to use them finally to establish their own power and to legitimize their rule over a territory which was actually usurped by them from the Mongols.
Q. Turah of Chinghiz Khan
A. The Central Asian administration was considerably influenced by the turah, that is the laws formulated by Chingiz after his ascendancy. The turah did not contain any religious element and dealt mainly with political principles and the organization of government and civil and military administration. The turah was considered to be an immutable code. The turah figures in Jahangir's autobiography and flickers through some of his measures. The references to turah, however, start fading and dwindle gradually in the reign of Shah Jahan and is finally engulfed by the "religious revivalism" during the reign of Aurangzeb. Nevertheless, the principles of turah and the Chaghatai traditions had limited utility in Indian context. A survey of the Mughal sources shows that the emphasis on turah was motivated by a realpolitik of the Mughal Emperors who wanted to highlight their links with the two former conquerors of India & to the great Empire builders namely Chingiz & Timur. Turah was preserved and at best its traditions continued to linger in the Mughal Empire mainly in the sphere of the laws of ceremonies and etiquettes.
Q. What was the Mughal theory of sovereignty.
Q. Write a brief note on the Mughal theory of sovereignty
A. The Mughal perception of sovereignty primarily carried the impact of Turco-Mongol traditions that had evolved in Central Asia, especially since the turah of Chingiz Khan. The king was the pivot of administration. The kbutba was read and the coins were struck in 'the name of the king throughout the Empire. The provincial rulers were appointed by the king. They were required to act in accordance with the regulations and orders of the king and owed their status to the sweet will of the ruler. The provincial rulers were not permitted to interfere in the collection of the king's share of the revenue. For these and for other administrative purposes, special deputies were appointed by the king. The failure of a provincial ruler (Sultan) to comply with the orders of the Khan or to fulfill his military or financial obligation at a certain time would have disastrous consequences for him. While they were allowed to have diplomatic relations with external powers, certain major decisions like the waging of war or the signing of treaty were taken by the king personally. The king was authorized to intervene in interstate feuds and even to transfer or depose an unruly Sultan.
Babar rejected any idea of sharing sovereignty with his begs (nobles), But the Mughals at early stages do not seem to have totally alienated themselves from Mongol influences. The Mongol principle of the division of the Empire was put to test soon after the death of Babur. Humayun divided his Empire among his brothers but failed. The Mughals considered sovereignty as the personal property of the 'Padshah'. Even the so-called hereditary privileges of the nobles got the sanction of the ruler. Such privileges had to be renewed by the new ruler. The nobility being the creation of the king himself was supposed to be the main source of his strength. At the time of the accession of a new Khan, the nobility had to take an oath-for remaining loyal and subservient to the king.
The theory of sovereignty propounded by Abul Fazl on behalf of Akbar and reflected in his mahzar and "Ai'n-i rahnamuni" seems to be as close to the Central Asian and, Perso-Islamic concepts as to the Chingizi traditions of sovereignty. It is significant that the absolute traditions of sovereignty and conjunction of spiritual and temporal rulership were developed at many courts as a defense mechanism against undue encroachment upon the king's authority by lesser mortals. The Emperor was certified to be a just ruler and was as such assigned the rank of mujtahid, i.e. an "infallible authority". The "intellect of the just king" thus became a valuable source of legislation.
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