EHI - 02

3rd Part 

Block 4 (Unit 14)

Q. How have the historians combined the archaeological and literary evidence, regarding the material culture in the 6th century B.C.?

A.  The archaeological and literary sources put together to provide us with a more complete picture of the Indian society between the 6th and the 4th centuries B.C. The Vedic literature like Upanishads which was composed 800 BC onwards refer to many Janapadas and Mahajanapadas and provide us insights into the settlement of agricultural communities. Buddhist texts like Sutta Pitaka, Vinaya Pitaka, Abhidhamma Pitaka and Jataka tales part of Sutta Pitaka tell us about the preachers, princes, rich, poor and towns and villages of that period. They provided graphic descriptions of contemporary society. These texts have clear references to various regions and geographical divisions. The archaeologists also contribute to our understanding of

this period. They have dug up various places like Ahichchhatra, Hastinapur. Kausambi and Ujjaini, Sravasti, Vaisali and many more which are mentioned in the texts of this period. They have discovered the remains of the houses, buildings, towns, and objects used by the people.

Q. Write two lines each on the new groups that emerged in this period.

A. Gahapati

A Gahapati was the master of an individual household that owned land. With the emergence of agricultural society, land became an important form of wealth. As such the ruling clans of the Kshatriyas and Brahmanas brought it under their control. The Gahapatis got their land cultivated by slaves (Dasa), hired laborers (Karmakar) and Shudras Merchants

From the ranks of the Gahapatis that an important class of traders emerged. Through the sale of their products, they built up a certain amount of capital which was used for trading. The word frequently used for the trader in the Buddhist sources is Setthi, meaning 'a person having the best'. It shows that the people who dealt with money matters had acquired considerable prestige and power.

Ruler and the Ruled

Unlike before, Kings of the 6 BC indicate his rule over territory with a regular taxation system and army. There are references to Krsaka i.e. peasants who paid taxes to the king. Now the peasant and the army were not linked in any kinship tie with the Raja. The distinction was now between Raja and Praja. The Praja included people from the non-lineage groups aha. A standing army implied control over local peasantry through force and an attitude of permanent confrontation with the people and kings of the neighboring territories.

Q. Name of the rulers with the name of Mahajanapadas.

Ajatsatru -------------------------------Magadha

Pradyota ------------------------------- Avanti

Udayana ------------------------------- Vatsa

Prasenajita ----------------------------- Kosala

Q. Name of Mahajanapadas with the name of the capital

A. Kashi ------------------- Varanasi

Anga ------------------------------ Champa

Vajji ------------------------------ Vaisali

Vatsa ----------------------------- Kausambi

Unit 15

Q. What is an Urban Center. 

A. The urban center refers to a place where the most powerful and visible sections of the population are engaged in activities other than food production. The urban society is

characterized by the presence of craft specialists, rich and poor people and a state administration. The other characteristic of an urban center is that it functions in

relation to a large hinterland. The residents of the city provide administrative, economic or religious services to a population residing in an area much larger than the physical space of the city. This relationship with the population of the hinterland

is advantageous to the urban center. The residents of the city are able to harness the resources of the people living in the hinterland in the form of taxation in kind or tribute. The merchant living in the city is also able to appropriate a share of the resources of rural areas by controlling the supply of metals, minerals or some luxury items.

Unit 16

Q. What mere the main factors which influenced agricultural growth? 6BC Period

A. Some of the main causative factors which seem to have influenced agricultural growth were as follows:

1) The crucial role of iron implements in clearing the thick vegetation cover of the Ganga Plains from about 600 B.C. onwards. Cereals like rice, barley, wheat, and millets were produced over the wider areas of land.

2) Buddhists insisted on the protection of cattle and Suttanipata clearly states that they should not be slaughtered because they constituted a source of grain and strength. Thus the preservation of cattle wealth for agricultural purposes was encouraged.

3) the beginning of paddy transplantation.

4) The rice-producing economy was supplemented by domestication and hunting of animals. This was another major means of their economic life and the source of

livelihood. Archaeologists have recovered a large number of bones of cattle, sheep, goats, horses, and pigs from the number of archaeological sites. Thus, the animals

were not only used for draught and the plough of fields but a section of the society was also probably non-vegetarian.

Q. How did rural economy develop? during 6 BC (Buddha, Jain period )

A. The rural economy developed through the establishment of new settlements by shifting surplus population from the overpopulated areas, and also by rehabilitating the decaying villages. In such cases, cattle, seed, money, and irrigational facilities were given by rulers. The remission of taxes and other concessions were allowed. Retired officials and priests were granted lands in such areas. Lands in these areas

could not be sold, mortgaged or inherited. Grassland was owned in common. They had an independent internal economy. The chief occupation in the rural area remained to be agriculture. The village supplied surplus produce to the towns and the towns supplied other necessities to the villagers. Whereas agriculture was the main occupation cattle rearing and certain small crafts connected with land, forest, and animals catering to local requirements, where the

other features of the rural economy.

Q. What were the important trade routes during the period under review?

A. In those days trade, both inland and foreign was fairly brisk. Merchants traveled long distances up and down the great rivers of the country and even undertook coastal voyages to Burma and Sri Lanka from Tamluk in the east and from Broach in the west. Inland, the traders followed certain well-established routes. One of them ran from Sravasti to Pratisthana; another linked Sravasti with Rajagriha; a third

skirted along the base of the Himalayas from Taxila to Sravasti, and a fourth connected Kashi with the ports of the western coast.

Unit 17

Q. Explain the Buddhist philosophy of 'Nirvana' and 'Karma'.

A. Buddhism laid great emphasis on the law of 'karma'. According to this law, the present is determined by past actions. The condition of a man in this life and the next depends upon his own actions. Every individual is the maker of his own destiny. We are born again and again to reap the fruits of our 'karma'. If an individual has no

sins, he is not born again. Thus the doctrine of karma is an essential part of the teachings of Buddha. Buddha preached 'nirvana', the ultimate goal in the life of a man. It means the

shedding of all desires and ending of sufferings, which finally leads to freedom from rebirth. By a process of elimination of desire, one can attain 'nirvana'. Therefore, Buddha preached that the annihilation of desire is the real problem. Prayers and sacrifices will not end the desire. So unlike the emphasis on rituals and ceremonies in Vedic religion, he laid emphasis on the moral life of an individual.

Q. List the factors responsible for the growth of Buddhism.

A. Factors responsible were -

# Emphasis on practical morality, an easily acceptable solution to the problems of mankind and simple philosophy, attracted the masses towards Buddhism.

# The ideas of social equality laid down in the codes of Buddhism made many lay followers accept Buddhism.

# Merchants, like Anathirpindika, and courtesans, like Amrapali, accepted the faith because they got due respect in this religion.

# The use of popular language (Pali) to explain the doctrines also helped in the spread of the religion. This was because the Brahmanical religion had limited itself to the use of Sanskrit which was not the language of the masses.

# The patronage extended by kings was another important reason for the rapid growth of Buddhism. For example, according to tradition, Asoka sent his son Mahendra and his daughter Sangamitra to Sri Lanka to preach Buddhism. He also established many monasteries and contributed liberally to the Sangha.

# The institution of Sangha had helped to organize the spread of Buddhism effectively.

Q. What are the basic principles of Jainism?

A. Mahavira accepted most of the religious doctrines laid down by Parsvanatha. However, he made some alterations and additions to them. Parsvanatha advocated the following four principles:

b) non-violence,

c) non-possession, and

d) not to receive anything which was not voluntarily given. To this Mahavira added celibacy (brahmacharya). Mahavira believed that the soul (jiva) and matter(ajiva) are the two basic existing elements. By means of continued efforts, the soul can be relieved of bondage. This is the final liberation (moksha) of the soul. The liberated soul then becomes 'the pure soul'. According to ta Jainism, man is the creator of his own destiny and he could attain 'moksha' by pursuing a life of purity, virtue, and renunciation. Moksha (nirvana) can be attained by observing the following three principles (ratnatraya):

i) Right belief.

ii) Right knowledge, and

iii) Right action.

He advocated a life of severe asceticism and extreme penance for the attainment of 'nirvana' or the highest spiritual state. He believed that the world was not created by any supreme creator. The world functions according to an eternal law of decay and development. He thought that all objects, animate and inanimate had a soul. He believed that they feel pain or the influence of injury.

Q. Who are Ajivikas? What are their ideas?

A. The Ajivikas are said to be sudra sannyasins. The sect was said established by Nanda Vachcha, who was followed by Kisa Sankichcha. The third religious chief was Makkali Gosala, who popularised this sect. He denied the theory of 'karma' and argued that man is subject to the laws of nature. The Ajivikas believed that the thought and deed of an individual were predetermined (decided before birth). They

did not believe that there was any special cause for either the misery of human beings or for their deliverance. They did not believe in human effort and held that all creatures were helpless against destiny. Gosala maintained that all creatures had to face misery and it would end after the completion of fixed cycles. No human effort would reduce or lengthen the period.