FST - 1

3rd Part

Q.  Briefly state how society influences scientific development. 

A.  The theories of science are also influenced by the general intellectual atmosphere in which the scientists work. It often happens that a theory that fits into the general intellectual atmosphere and so is accepted universally, impedes further scientific advance. New theories based on newly discovered facts may be radically different from the existing ones. Therefore they come into conflict with the prevailing ideas and social thought.  This conflict has in the past lead to the persecution of scientists. For instance, in the seventeenth century, Galileo used a telescope to see and to show others that the moons of the planet Jupiter revolved around it. This was very much like what he was proposing: that the earth revolved around the sun. He could also show that there were hills and valleys on the surface of the moon.  But these ideas were against the prevailing concepts that the sun revolved around the earth and God had created the perfectly spherical moon. This new theory when published led to the trial of Galileo. Nevertheless, history shows that barring a few exceptions new ideas in science overcame opposition and came to be accepted in due course of time. This not only leads to great leaps in science but also molded the intellectual thinking in general.

Q.  Describe the characteristic features of scientific knowledge. 

A.  Scientific knowledge is never at a standstill. It is a dynamic and ongoing process. It is an ever-growing enterprise that will never end. This is because, in science, there is no single ultimate truth to be achieved after which all scientists can retire. A remarkable feature of scientific knowledge is that it is never complete. The more we add to this knowledge the more questions arise about the unknown mysteries of nature. New information is thus continuously gathered, New theories arise if new facts cannot be explained by the existing ones. Practitioners of science can never lay claim to complete or ultimate knowledge. We have seen that science is not static. Going a step further we may say that scientific knowledge is also not immutable. Nothing can remain unchallenged in science. In fact, some of the most honored scientists are those, who try to alter modify or replace existing theories by providing revolutionary evidence or argument. In this sense science is a self-correcting enterprise i.e. it is open to change. Many hypotheses proposed by scientists turned out to be wrong. Science is generated by an idea of free inquiry, the idea that any hypothesis no matter how strange, deserves to be considered on its merits. Thus science is not dogmatic. It does not unreasonably insist on standing by preconceived notions, concepts ideas that have been proved wrong through careful experimentation. Science progresses by disproving. It has no high priests who cannot be questioned. What would be considered highly undesirable in science is the unquestioned acceptance of things as they are. Last but not the least scientific knowledge is objective. That is, scientific results are verifiable and repeatable by anyone anywhere if proper facilities are available. All new ideas must survive the rigorous standard of evidence. Sometimes it takes years, or even hundreds of years before the ideas are verified. Nonetheless, in the long run, no brilliant arguments, high authority or aesthetic appeal can save a scientific theory that disagrees with the experiment or observation of nature.

Q.  Describe the technical achievements during the Bronze Age. 

A.  The major technical advance was the discovery and use of metals, particularly copper and its alloy bronze. 

Use of Metals

With the development of fire kilns, copper metal was produced from copper ores. Later, an alloy of copper and tin was discovered. It was harder and stronger than copper and could be cast into tools and weapons. Some of the tools thus made were found to be far superior to stone tools and weapons, and were easier to produce. The use of this new metal meant a revolution in many techniques, such as carpentry, masonry, making tools, vessels, vases, etc.

Transport 

Trade flourished during this period between different regions. When river transport was extended to the sea for long voyages, it posed new problems of boat construction and navigation. Stronger winds meant stronger fabrics for making sail, and construction of heavy frames and structures to hold them. Besides sea trade, advances took place in inland transport and trade. The use of the wheel for running carts that transported goods and passengers was possibly one of the most significant developments of the Bronze Age. This revolutionized transportation and greatly enhanced the mobility of men and material.

Quantitative Science

With the availability of surplus in agriculture and the production of non-agricultural goods by craftsmen, exchange and trade became a part of life. The problem now was the unavailability of standardized measuring units for weight, length, etc. Gradually, symbols were introduced to cover actions as well as objects and so writing emerged. The standardization of exchange in the form of weight emerged too. Similarly, the exchange also necessitated simple calculations such as addition and subtraction of numbers, which led to arithmetic. The use of bricks for building houses gave rise to the ideas of the right angle, and the straight line, which led to the birth of what we call geometry. The practice of building in brick also gave rise to the concept of areas and volumes of figures and solids, which could be calculated from the lengths of their sides. At first, only the volume of rectangular blocks could be estimated. The ability to count and calculate found immediate use in certain other areas such as the making of calendars and in the consequent development of astronomy.   

               Another occupation that came to be very prestigious with the growth of cities was that of medicine. Although the practice of medicine was limited to treating wounds, dislocations, fractures, etc., the practitioners could successfully diagnose many diseases. Practitioners of medicine also had knowledge of plants and mineral substances to prepare drugs for various diseases. They grew plants and herbs for this purpose. The basis for chemistry was laid during the bronze age. Jewelers, metalworkers, and potters knew about at least nine chemical elements-gold, silver, copper, tin, lead, mercury, iron, sulphur and carbon, and also about a variety of dry and liquid reagents. The process of smelting ores, of purifying metals, of coloring them, of adding enamel involving complex chemical reactions were learned by many trials and experiments during the bronze age.

Q.  Describe the developments in Indian society that led to the decline of Science in the Post-Gupta period.

A. The features in Indian society led to the decline of science in the post-Gupta period were -

 i) The emergence of small fiefdoms which encouraged a self-sufficient village economy and discouraged trade.

ii) The caste system became rigid and firmly entrenched.

        The collapse of the Roman and Sassanian empires, with which India had a flourishing and profitable trade, led to a serious setback to trade and commerce. This was accompanied by the rise of small fiefdoms within the empire who were constantly on the lookout for asserting their independence. The small fiefdoms encouraged an economy in which villages or groups of villages tended to become largely self-sufficient, thus discouraging trade. The caste system again became more firmly entrenched, exalting the privileges of the Brahmins and emphasizing the social and religious disabilities of the Sudras. A large number of castes, such as potters, weavers, goldsmiths, musicians, barbers, road-makers, and others practicing similar crafts were regarded as lowly. The intellectual effort was directed towards justifying and maintaining the rigid caste system

Q.  Describe the developments in technology in the Mauryan Empire. 

A.   We get a great deal of information about the technical developments in the Maurya period from the treatise, Arthasastra. In Arthasastra. there are detailed descriptions of military machines that use the principle of centrifugal forces. There was considerable development in civil engineering. For increasing the productivity of

sita land. many forms of irrigation came to be used. Excellent roads were built throughout the empire to Facilitate mobility of the army and the traders. 

            Asoka, possibly for the first time in India. introduced stones to construct buildings. Stones were polished to a mirror-like finish and used for the construction of pillars and arches. There was some development of rural industries also. Small industries and relevant technology came into being near the sita lands for husking of grain, pressing of oilseeds, carding of cotton and wool. the spinning of yam, grading and.processing of wool, manufacture of blankets and shaping of timbers into planks and beams. The concept of factory production took shape, probably for the first time. as the above commodities were produced under the direct supervision of the superintendent. 

           The greatest contribution to the advancement of technology was. perhaps, made in the area of metallurgy and metalworking. The shifting of the seat of power from the north-west to Magadha was mainly due to the increasing demand for iron, copper. tin, lead and other metals. The metals were needed for making weapons and ploughshares. the two essential pillars of the Mauryan state. as well as for manufacturing other goods of trade. Metallurgy of making alloys was also developed. The finest of iron ores from different parts of the empire, especially the south. were brought for making alloy steels.

Q.  Bronze Age Civilisation 

A. After the Stone Age, the next period in the evolution of human society is known as the Bronze Age. It is named after the new alloy which replaced stone during this period as humans learned to produce new metal which had far-reaching positive consequences for human civilization. This period was the beginning of a new type of productive activity, namely agriculture which encouraged human settlements firstly in villages and slowly urban areas. The rise of cities and the changing socio-economic needs led to the birth of science during this period. The growth of cities brought about a change in the social organization which later affected the growth of science in Bronze Age cultures.

During the Bronze Age, the socio-economic needs of growing cities and trade between cities gave rise to many broad areas of quantitative science, such as standardization of measures, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, medicine, etc. The base for the future development of many other areas such as chemistry, algebra, anatomy and physiology, botany, etc. was also laid in this era.

Q.  Decline of the Bronze Age Civilization 

A.  a)  The emergence of two distinct groups of the producers and the appropriators. 

b)  Invasions by nomadic barbarians.

c)  Increase in population, leading to pressure on cities.

           There arose a division between those who produced and those who appropriated the produce. This also meant a division between the thinkers and the doers, between theory and practice. Eventually, the social structure became exploitative. Peasants and urban craftsmen became poorer, many of them ending up as slaves later on. The emergence of two distinct classes, the haves and the have nots, in the society, led to conflicts between them. This weakened the city-states and ultimately put a stop to their intellectual and technical progress.

           The increasing population was another major problem faced during this time period which had negative consequences as the resources were not sufficient to feed the ever-increasing population leading to social tensions. Another factor was the continuous barbarian invasions which also brought tremendous pressure on these city cultures. They had to expand territorially to occupy more available land, in order to feed the population. They also had to raise armies and fortifications to defend themselves.

Q.  Why was the Roman phase of the Iron Age marked by stagnation of Science? 

A.  By the first century B.C., the Romans had organized themselves into a powerful military dictatorship, with popular support. The army went on to conquer the countries of eastern and western Mediterranean as well as Britain, western Germany, and Austria. While the army became all-powerful, the land was ruled by slave owners and wealthy merchants. The cementing force of the empire was the army, as it was used by the emperor to collect enough taxes to keep the soldiers from mutinying and choosing another emperor. The best land was cultivated by the slave gangs from the villas of the wealthy, while the poorer areas were left to the pagan natives or to newly settled free slaves from the villas. Thus, the mainstay of the economy was loot from the empire by military coercion, and agriculture by slaves. In such a situation, it is, perhaps, not surprising that there was very little demand to increase production and to improve the economy through the applications of

new techniques. 

         While there was no improvement in techniques and no growth of science in the Roman era, the existing knowledge was applied to construct buildings for civil and military administration. Burnt bricks and concrete made from volcanic ash and lime were used to construct roads, harbors, aqueducts, baths & theatres Accumulation of power and wealth in the hands of a few rich men, and general brutalization and consequent impoverishment of a population of slaves lowered the demand for commodities. This depressed the conditions of merchants and craftsmen still further. With no incentive for science to develop new techniques, science lost its essential quality of inquiring into nature. As the Roman Empire was followed by the serf-owning feudal economy of Europe, this state of cultured stagnation continued till the fifteenth century.

Q.  What were the different methods of production used by the primitive society and the Bronze Age Civilization?

A.  Food gathering and hunting in the primitive society; agriculture, masonry, carpentry and other crafts in the Bronze Age Civilisation.

Q.  List the socio-economic needs that led to the advances in techniques in the early phase of the growth of cities.

A.  The need for having better tools for agriculture, houses for shelter, pottery for storage, carts, and boats for transport and trade, planned layout, etc. in growing cities, led to the advances in techniques.

Q.  In what ways were these needs fulfilled by the technical advances of those times?

A.  By the technical advances in pottery, metal-working, masonry, carpentry, brick - working, boat-making, stone-working, etc.

Q.  The growth of cities and the technical advances eventually led to the formation of two distinct groups-the producers and the appropriators. What was the difference between the two groups?

A. The producers like farmers, masons, wheelwrights, carpenters, etc. were themselves involved in the production of goods; the appropriators did not produce goods themselves, they cornered other people's produce.

                  

Q.   What was the difference between the socio-political organization of the state during the Maurya and the Gupta periods?

A.   The state was highly centralized in the Maurya period, whereas in the Gupta period the rigid state control was relaxed and individual initiative was encouraged.

Q.  Which unscientific practice led to the decline of astronomy in India?

A.  The unscientific practice of treating astrology at the same level as astronomy.

Aryabhatta - the earth rotates and the heavens are still.

           Eclipses are caused by the shadows of the earth or moon.

Varahamihira -  The earth is motionless and the sun, moon and the planets move around it.

 Eclipses are caused by the shadows of the earth or moon.

Brahmagupta - Eclipses are caused by Rahu and Ketu.

              The earth is motionless and the sun, moon and the planets move around it.

Q.  Which primitive practice reflects the features of designing and planning that characterize modem science?

A. The toolmaker first thought of what tool he was going to make (design) and how he was going to do it (plan). Then he took a large chunk of stone and shaped it accordingly.

Q.  How did the use of clothing and domestication of animals affect the primitive society?

A.  The use of clothing enabled primitive human beings to withstand cold weather. The domestication of animals increased their mobility and also the availability of food. Thus, the primitive society could hope to survive even in adverse conditions.

Stone Age - The major development at this stage was the invention of master tools: the implements to make implements. This created the possibility of producing many different types of implements than could be simply selected or picked up from nature.

Bronze Age - We have seen that the socio-economic needs of growing cities and trade between cities gave rise to many broad areas of quantitative science, such as standardization of measures, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, medicine, etc. The base for the future development of many other areas such as chemistry, algebra, anatomy and physiology, botany, etc. was also laid in this era.

Q.  a) In a given society,

i) what factors decide the broad areas of scientific activity?

A.  The broad areas of scientific activity in society are decided by its socioeconomic conditions and the prevailing ideological atmosphere. For instance, if, in a society, it is more important to provide for the basic needs of the people, science will be used to first satisfy these needs. But, if a society thrives on market economy, it will promote scientific activity in areas which increase

the profits such as making weapons or consumer products like fancy electronic gadgets etc.

ii)  what areas of activity set the specific goals for science to achieve?

A.  The specific areas such as trade, health, resource mapping and management, agriculture, industry, transport, communication, military activity, etc. set the specific goals for science to achieve.

b) What are the conditions that determine whether the fruits of science are used for human good or for destructive purposes?

A.  The use or misuse of science depends on, who the dominating groups in society are and what their interests are. These things are also determined by the particular period of time, in which a society exists and functions.

c)  Who in the society, should decide about the purpose and scope of science?

A.  The vast majority of common people like us should decide, for what purposes and how science should be used in society. For example, in our society, science should be used not only to make and launch satellites, build nuclear reactors, or send expeditions to Antarctica but also to provide basic necessities, like clean

drinking water, food, shelter, etc., and to improve the quality of life by providing suitable health-care, better transport, electricity, etc.

Q.  Ways in which the growth of science influences the production process in a society.

A.  The growth of science in a society leads to

i) an increase in production like electricity revolutionized production process.(elaborate further), steamships, airplanes

ii) an improvement in the methods of production such as improved tools, machines, computers, etc., in the present-day society.