EHI - 3

1st Part

Block - 1

Q.  Describe different kinds of Land grants or Agrarian settlements in the early medieval period ( 8th - 12th).

A. There were different kinds of land grants -

    Brahmadeya - A brahmadeya represents a grant of land either in individual plots or whole villages were given away to Brahmans making them landowners or land controllers. It was meant either to bring virgin land under cultivation or to integrate existing agricultural settlements into the new economic order dominated

by a Brahman proprietor. The practice of land grants as brahmadeya was initiated by the ruling dynasties and then followed by chiefs, feudatories, etc. Brahmadeya facilitated agrarian expansion because they were :

#  exempted from various taxes or dues either entirely or at least in the initial stages of settlement (e.g. for 12 years);

#  given different kinds of ever-growing privileges. The ruling families derived an economic advantage in the form of the extension of the resource base, moreover by creating brahmadeyas they also, gained ideological support for their political power.

              Brahmadeyas were invariably located near major irrigation works such as tanks or lakes. Sometimes, two or more settlements were clubbed together to form a brahmadeya or an agrahara.

Secular Grants: From the seventh century onwards, officers of the state were also being remunerated through land grants. It created another class of landlords who were not Brahmanas. Literary works dealing with central India, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Bihar and Bengal between the tenth and twelfth centuries make frequent references

to various kinds of grants to ministers, kinsmen and those who rendered military Services to the state. The rajas, rajaputras, mahasamantas, etc. mentioned in Pala land charters were mostly vassals connected with land. The incidence of land grants to state officials varies from one region to another.

Devadanas: It represents large scale gifts of land to the religious establishments, both Brahmanical and non-Brahmanical. Through the process of acculturation, these centers helped in integrating various peasant and tribal settlements. They also integrated various socio-economic groups through service tenures or remuneration through temple lands. Temple lands were leased out to tenants, who paid a higher share of crop produce to the temple. Such lands were also managed either by the sabha of the brahmadeya or mahajanas of the agrahara settlements. In non - Brahmana settlements temples became the central institution. Here temple lands came to be administered by the temple executive committees composed of land-owning non-Brahmans the Velalas of Tamil Nadu. 

The supervision of temple lands was in the hands of Brahmana and non-Brahmana landed elite. The control of irrigation sources was also a major function of the local bodies dominated by landed elite groups. Thus the Brabmana, the temple and higher strata of non-Brahmanas as landlords, employers and holders of superior rights in land became the central feature of the early medieval agrarian organization. 

Q.  Critically Examine the nature of the early medieval economy(8th- 13th).

A.  1) Emergence of hierarchical landed intermediaries. Vassals and officers of state and other secular assignee had military obligations and feudal titles. Different intermediaries were employed by these donees to get their land cultivated which led to the growth of hierarchy among landed elites. It was a hierarchy of landed aristocrats, tenants, sharecroppers and cultivators. This hierarchy was also reflected in the power/administrative structure, where a sort -of lord-vassal relationship emerged. In other words, Indian feudalism consisted of the grossly unequal distribution of land and its produce.

2)  Another important feature was the prevalence of forced labor. The right of extracting forced labor (vishti) is believed to have been exercised by the Brahmana and other grantees of land. Forced labor was originally a prerogative of the King or the state. It was transferred to the grantees, petty officials, village authorities and others. In the Chola inscriptions alone, there are more than one hundred references to forced labor. Even the peasants and artisans come within the jurisdiction of vishti. As a result, a kind of serfdom emerged, in which agricultural laborers were reduced to the position of semi-serfs. 

3) Due to the growing claims of greater rights over land by rulers & intermediaries, peasants also suffered a curtailment of their land rights. Many were reduced to the position of tenants facing an ever-growing threat of eviction. A number of peasants have only shared, croppers. The strain on the peasantry was also caused by the burden of taxation, coercion, and the increase in their indebtedness.

4) The surplus was extracted through various methods. With the rise of new property relations, new mechanisms of economic subordination also evolved. The increasing burden is evident in the mentioning of more than fifty levies in the inscription of Rajaraja Chola. Thus newer methods were devised to extract more from the peasantry.

5) It was relatively a closed village economy. The transfer of human resources along with the land to the beneficiaries shows that in such villages the peasants, craftsmen, and artisans were attached to the villages and hence were mutually dependent. Their attachment to the land and to service grants ensured control over

them by the beneficiaries. Thus, Indian feudalism like the emergence of hierarchical landed intermediaries, the prevalence of forced labor, curtailment of land rights of peasants, economic subordination by surplus extraction and existence of a relatively closed village economy.

Q.  Critically examine the regional pattern of the emergence of urban centers in the 9 the-13th centuries. What role did proliferation of land grants and bhakti play in the growth of urbanization in the early medieval period? 

A.  In a vast country like India, there are a lot of regional variations in the pattern of emergence and growth of urban centers. 

1) Rural Centres Transformed into Urban Centres - The brahmadeyas and devadanas which are important sources of agrarian Urban Settlements during the early medieval period provided the nuclei of urban growth. The Brahmana and temple settlements were clustered together in certain key areas of agricultural production. Such centers, initially rural, became points of convergence of people involved in trade, agriculture, and pilgrimage. Examples of such centers of urban growth are the Chola city of Kumbakonam developed out of agrarian clusters and became a multi-temple urban center between the ninth and twelfth centuries. Kanchipuram is a second major example of such an urban complex.

2) Market Centres & Trade-Network - Early medieval centuries also witnessed the emergence of urban centers of relatively modest dimensions, as market centers, trade centers (fairs, etc.) which were primarily points of the exchange network. The range of interaction of such centers varied from small agrarian hinterlands to regional commercial hinterlands. Some of them emerged due to the exchange needs of the Nadu. A fairly large number of such centers were founded by ruling families or were established by royal sanction and were named after the rulers, a feature common to all regions in South India. Such centers had the suffix Pura or pattana. 

               Nagarams located on important trade routes and at the points of intersection developed into a more important trade and commercial center of the region. They were ultimately brought into a network of intra-regional and inter-regional trade as well as overseas trade through the itinerant merchant organizations and the royal ports. Such development occurred uniformly throughout peninsular India between the tenth and twelfth centuries.  The

nagarams linked the ports with political and administrative centers and craft centers in the interior. In Karnataka, nagarams emerged more as points of exchange in the trading network than as regular markets for agrarian regions.

              Market centers also developed in Rajasthan & western parts of MP. Rajasthan provided the main commercial links between Gujarat, Central India, and the Ganga valley. Such links were maintained through towns like Pali, which connected the seacoast towns like Dwaraka and Broach with Central and North India. Gujarat continued to be the major trading region of Western India where early historic ports like Broach continued to flourish as important trade centers in early medieval times. Major craft centers that developed in response to inter-regional trade were weaving centers in Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu.

Sacred/Pilgrimage Centres - The idea of a pilgrimage to religious centers developed in the early medieval period due to the spread of the cult of Bhakti. Its expansion in different regions through a process of acculturation and interaction between the Brahmanical or Sanskritic forms of worship and folk or popular cults cut across narrow sectarian interests. Pilgrimage centers developed urban features due to a mobile pilgrim population, trade and royal patronage. 

              Pushkara near Ajmer in Rajasthan was a sacred tirtha of regional importance with a dominant Vaishnava association. Kasi (Banaras) acquired a pan-Indian character due to its greater antiquity and importance as a Brahmanical sacred center. In South India, Srirangam (Vaishnava), Chidambaram (Shaiva) and Madurai (Shaiva), etc. developed as regional pilgrimage centers, while Kanchipuram became a part of an all India pilgrimage network. While Melkote was a regional sacred center in Karnataka. Similarly, Tirupati was initially an important sacred- center for the Tamil Vaishnavas but acquired a pan-Indian character later in the Vijayanagara period.

                The early medieval urbanization is sometimes characterized as "temple urbanization" particularly in the context of south India. Sacred centers also provided important links in the commerce of a region as temples and the mathas attached to them were the biggest consumers of luxury articles and valuable goods.

Royal Centres or Capitals -

Royal centers of the seats of power of the ruling families were a major category of urban centers in early medieval India. Some of them had been the seats of royal power even in the early historic period, for example, in the Janapadas of North India or in the traditional polities of South India. Royal families also developed their own ports, which were the main ports of entry into their respective territories and which also linked them with international commerce. Some representative examples are:

#  Vatapi and Vengi of the Chalukyas in the northern Karnataka and Andhra.

#  Kanchipuram of the Pallavas with their royal.the port at Mamallapuram (Mahabalipuram).

#  Madurai of the Pandyas with Korkai as their port.

#  Tanjavur of the Colas with Nagappattinam as their port.

#  Kalyana of the Western Chalukyas, Dvarasamudra of the Hoysalas 

#  Warangal of the Kakatiyas with Motupalli at their port.

Warangal was a rare example of a fortified royal city in South India.

Examples of royal centers in North India are:

#  the Gurjara Partihara capital at Kanyakubja (Kanauj).

#  Khajuraho of the Chandellas.

#  Dhara of the Paramaras 

Q Discuss the standard of living, clothing pattern and social life of the urban classes in medieval India. 

or

Q.  Discuss in detail the two phases of the trade and commerce during the 8th to 12th centuries(500). OR

Discuss in brief the trading activities in India between 9thto 13thcenturies(250). OR

Discuss the chief features of the trading economy during c. A.D. 700 to A.D. 900 (500).

A. The two phases of the trade and commerce during the early medieval times can be divided as - 

1) c.700-900 A.D.. and

2) c 900-1300 A.D.

Briefly, the two phases are marked by :

a) relative decline of trade, metallic currency, urban centers and a closed village economy in the first phase, and

b) reversal of most of the aforesaid tendencies in the second phase. During the second phase, trade picked up momentum not only within the country b$t in relation to other countries as well. Metal coins were no longer as scarce as they were in the first phase.

THE FIRST PHASE (c.A.D. 700-900)

 The period from A.D. 750-1000 witnessed the wide-spread practice of granting land not only to priests and temples but also to warrior chiefs and state officials like Samantas, mahasamanta, maha-mandaleshvara, etc. leading to a hierarchy of landlords. However, they were different from the actual tillers of the soil and lived on the surplus extracted from the peasants who were hardly left with anything to trade. It resulted in the growth of rural economy where local needs were being satisfied locally. The relative dearth of metal coins further decimated trading during this time. 

Relative Decline of Trade

Internally, the fragmentation of political authority and the dispersal of power to local chiefs, religious grantees, etc. had an adverse effect on trade and commerce on the land grant economy. Many of the intermediary landlords, particularly of less productive areas, resorted to loot and plunder or excessive taxes on goods passing through their territories. Which further dampened the enthusiasm of traders and merchants. No less discouraging were the frequent wars among the potential ruling chiefs. Some other factors which led to the decline of trade with other countries were - 

1) The disintegration of the Roman empire which was one of the major trading partner and importer of goods had a cascading impact on trade.

2) Trade has also affected adversely in the middle of the sixth century when the people of Byzantine (Eastern Roman Empire) learned the art of making silk. India thus. lost an important market which had fetched her considerable amount of gold in the early centuries of the Christian era.

3)  The decline of foreign trade was also caused by the expansion of Arabs on the North-west frontiers of India in the seventh and eighth centuries. Their presence in the region made overland routes unsafe for Indian merchants.

4) The fights amongst the Tibetans and Chinese during these centuries also affected the flow of goods along the routes in central Asia.

5) The Western coast of India suffered dislocation and disruption of sea trade as the Arabs raided Broach and Thana in the seventh century and destroyed Valabhi an important port on the Saurashtra coast, in the eighth century.

Urban Settlements: Decay

The first phase was also marked by by-the decay and desertion of many towns. It is an important symptom of commercial decline because the towns are primarily the settlements of people engaged in crafts and commerce. As trade declined and the demand for craft-goods slumped, the traders and craftsmen living in towns had to disperse to rural areas for alternative means of livelihood. Thus towns decayed & townsfolk became a part of the village economy. The decay of important towns such as Vaishali, Pataliputra, Varanasi, etc. is evident from the archaeological excavations which reveal the poverty of structure and antiquities. The pan-Indian scene is marked by the desertion of urban centers or their state of decays in the period between the third and eighth centuries. Even those settlements which continued up to the eighth century were deserted thereafter.

                 The commercial activity during the first phase of the early medieval period had declined but did not disappear completely. In fact, trade-in costly and luxury goods meant for the use of kings, feudal chiefs and heads of temples and monasteries continued to exist. The articles such as precious and semi-precious stones. ivory, horses, etc. formed an important part of the long-distance trade. In short, the nature of commercial activity during A.D. 750-1000 was such which catered more to the landed intermediaries and feudal lords rather than the masses.

THE SECOND PHASE (c.A.D.900 - 1300)

This phase is marked by the revival of trade and commerce. It was also the period of agrarian expansion, increased use of money and the reemergence of the market, the economy in which goods were produced for exchange rather than for local consumption. These centuries also witnessed a substantial growth of urban settlements in different parts of the sub-continent.

Crafts and Industry

The growth of agricultural production was supplemented by increased craft production. Increased craft production stimulated the process of both regional and inter-regional exchange. Textile Industry developed as a major economic activity producing coarse as well as fine cotton goods. The oil industry also acquired great importance during this period. An inscription from Karnataka refers to different types of oil pills operated both by men and bullocks.

        Similarly, references to sugarcane cultivation and cane crushers in this period also indicate large scale production of jaggery and other forms of sugar. Besides the agro-based industry, the craftsmanship in metal and leather goods too reached a high level of excellence. The literary sources refer to craftsmen connected with different types of metals such as copper, brass, iron, gold, silver, etc. Iron was also used to manufacture swords, spearheads and other arms and weapons of high quality. Magadha, Benaras, Kalinga, and Saurashtra were known for the manufacture of good quality swords. Gujarat was known for gold and silver embroidery.

Metal currency revival

The revival of trade received considerable help from the reemergence of metal money during this time period. the practice of minting gold coins was revived by Gangeyadera (A.D. 1019;1040), King of Tripuri (in Madhya Pradesh) after a gap of more than four centuries. Govindachandra, the Gahadavala King near Varanasi in Uttar Pradesh, the Chandella rulers Kirttivarmana and Madanavarman in Central India, King Harsha of Kashmir and some Chola Kings in Tamil Nadu also issued gold coins. Reference has already been made above to certain early medieval coin types in Western and Northwestern India. According to one estimate, about nine mints were founded in different parts of Karnataka during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. An important mint functioned at Shrimol (near Jodhpur) in Rajasthan.

Commodities of trade and Consumers

The chief customers of Indian goods were the rich inhabitants of China, Arabia, and Egypt. Many of the Indian goods were exported to Europe via the Mediterranean. Merchants carrying food grains, oil, butter, salt, coconuts, betel leaves, madder, indigo, candied sugar, jaggery, thread cotton fabrics, blankets, metals, spices, etc. from one place to another, and paying taxes and tolls on them. A new class of domestic consumers emerged as a result of large scale landgrants from the eighth century onwards. The priests who earlier subsisted on a meager fee offered at domestic and other rites were now entitled to hereditary enjoyment of vast landed estates, benefices, and rights. This new landowning class, along with the ruling chiefs and rising mercantile class, became an important buyer of luxuries and necessities because of their better purchasing power. Big temples with their vast resources and varied requirements also helped in generating commercial activity. This phenomenon was more marked in South India where many temple sites became important commercial centers. 

Trade Routes and Means of Communication

A vast network of roads connected to different ports, markets, and towns with one another and served as the channel of trade and commerce. Besides roads, the rivers in the plains of Northern India, and the sea route along the Eastern and Western coasts in South India also served as an important means of inter-regional

contacts. A significant development in the post-tenth centuries was the keen interest shown by rulers to keep the highways in their kingdoms safe. They took measures to punish thieves and robbers and provided military as well as monetary help to villagers to protect the traders and travelers passing through their region. They also built new roads to connect important ports and markets in their state and excavated tanks and wells for the benefit of travelers. Trade is an important source of revenue. political authorities had to be concerned about the safety and well being of traders and merchants.

Revival of Towns

The second phase of early medieval India (c.900-1300 A.D.) is marked by a very distinctive revival of urban centers. This revival became an almost all India phenomenon. 

Q.  Give a brief account of various groups of merchants operating during the medieval period. 

Q.  Various groups of traders.-------to do

Q.  What were merchant guilds? Discuss the role played by Aiyyavole guild in the expansion of trading activities in South India. 

Q.  What were guilds? Examine the organization and functions of Aiyyavole and Maninagram.

A.  The guilds were voluntary associations of merchants dealing in the same type of commodity such as grains, textiles, betel leaves, horses, perfumes, etc. They were formed by both local as well as itinerant merchants. The association of local merchants having permanent residence in town was more permanent in nature than

the association of itinerant merchants which was formed only for a specific journey and was terminated at the end of each venture. The guilds framed their own rules and regulations regarding the membership and the code of conduct. They fixed the prices of their goods and could even decide that a specific commodity was not to be sold on a particular day by its members. The two most important merchant guilds of South India were known as the Ayyavole and the Manigraman. Geographically, the area of their operation corresponded to the present-day state of Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and South Andhra Pradesh.

Ayyavole  - The Ayyavole was the guild of merchants in South India. This was a strong body of merchants and contributed to the expansion of trade not only in South India but overseas also. The merchant guild Ayyavole was also known as the guild of "the 500 Swami of Aihole" nanadeshi. In course of outward expansion, the members of the Ayyavole guild interacted with the local markets called nagaram, and promoted commercial activity by collecting agricultural goods from the hinterland and distributing the goods brought from elsewhere. The commercial influence of Ayyavole spread even beyond South India. It is indicated by the inscriptions found at Burma, Java, Sumatra and Sri Lanka. As the mercantile activities of Ayyavole increased, some of its members became quite. rich and powerful, and acquired the title of Samaya Chakravarti. i.e. the emperor of the trading organization.

Manigramam - Another important merchant guild of South India was the Manigramam. It first appeared along the Kerala coast in the ninth century A.D. However, as it gradually came into close contact, with the Ayyavole, it greatly improved upon its inter-regional activities and covered a large part of the peninsula. A ninth-century Tamil inscription found on the West coast of Malaya indicates that it was engaged in the long-distance sea trade from the very beginning. 

Functioning - The guild normally worked under the leadership of a chief who was elected by its members. He performed the functions of a magistrate in deciding the economic affairs of the guild. He could punish, condemn or even expel those members who violated the guild rules. One of his main duties was to deal directly with the King and settle the market tolls and taxes on behalf of his fellow merchants. The growth of corporate activity enabled guild chiefs to consolidate their power and position in society, and many of them acted as the representative of their members on the local administrative councils.

A member of the guild worked under a strict code of discipline and was also robbed of some initiative or action but still, he enjoyed numerous benefits. He received the full backing of the guild in all his economic activities and was, thus, saved from the harassment of local officials. Unlike a hawker or vendor, he had greater credibility in the market on account of his members' ip of the guild.