EHI - 02

4th Part 

Unit 18

Q. Magadha was surrounded by the following three kingdoms:

A. Anga, Vajji Confederacy, Kassi

Q. Describe the important sources for reconstructing the history of Magadha

A. Some of the most important texts available are well preserved in early Buddhists and Jain literature. Buddhist texts like the Tripitikas and the Jatakas and Jain texts Acaranga Sutra and Sutrakritanga shed vital information regarding Magadha. Later Buddhist chronicles like the Mahavamsa and Dipavamsa compiled in Sri Lanka are significant sources for the events related particularly to Asoka Maurya's reign. Divyavadana (which is preserved outside India in the Tibetan and Chinese Buddhist sources) also provides information. Other important sources are

Arthashastra written by Chanakya and books by Greek writers like Megasthenes, Strabo, Diodorus, and Arrian.

Q. List three important factors that were advantageous for the growth of the Magadhan kingdom.

A. 1) Magadh lies close to the iron mineral area thus has an abundant supply of iron ore required for good production of weapons and agricultural implements. It facilitated the expansion of the agrarian economy and thereby. the generation of substantial

surplus, extracted by the State in the form of taxes. This, in turn, enabled them to expand and develop their territorial base.

2) Magadha lies on the most fertile alluvial soil thus agriculture production was immensely creating an economic boost to the economy.

3) Pataliputra became the capital of Magadha under the Mauryas. This enabled Magadha to effectively command the uttarapatha (northern route) which lay to the north of the river Ganges, along the foothills of the Himalayas. The river also came to be used as one of the main arteries connecting Magadha with different regions and making heavy transport along the river possible.

Q. To what extent do you think that the Nanda rule in Magadha was significant?

A. The Nandas are described as the first empire-builders of India. They overthrew all the contemporary ruling houses and thus usurped more areas and brought them under Magadha control. Nandas had contact with the Deccan and South India. Their control of some parts of Kalinga (modem Orissa) is indicated in the Hathigumpha inscription of king Kharavela, who ruled in Orissa from the middle of the first century B.C. Inscriptions from the south Kamataka region suggest that parts of the Deccan were also included in the Magadhan empire under the Nandas. Thus under the reign of Mahapadma Nanda the first phase of the expansion and consolidation of the Kingdom of Magadha took place.

Q. Write a note on why there was a change in the policy of conquest under Asoka?

A. Asoka himself in Rock Edict 13 described his conquest of Kalinga which took place eight years after his consecration, around 260 B.C. In this war, the Kalingans were completely routed "One hundred thousand were slain, and many times that number died." Though on the battlefield Asoka, was victorious, the inscription goes on to describe his remorse which then ultimately turned him towards Dhamma. A policy of conquest through the war was given up and replaced by a policy of conquest through Dhammavijaya.

Unit 19

Q. List the material changes that took place in the Ganges Valley under the Mauryas in about four lines.

A.  Some of the material changes that took place were -

1) Improvement of technology

2) Increased circulation of coins

3) Increase in urbanization

4) Use of bricks

Improvement in technology - During this period there was an improvement of technology in construction, burnt bricks, timber structures excavated gives testimony to it. Similarly, the use of iron tools in clearing dense forests and other iron tools like socketed axes, sickles, and plowshares improved the agricultural output significantly.

Increased urbanization - With the agricultural surplus economy improved significantly and thus new social class emerged which was not directly involved in agriculture but in trading. This social class of merchants and traders lived in towns thus increasing

the pace of urbanization.

Increase circulation of coins - Magadha facilitated trade within the country and also abroad. This increase in trading was supported by the increased frequency of coins which were minted by state. Due to the close proximity to silver, gold mines, coins were minted in silver, gold, and copper as proved through excavations.

Q Matching words
A Janapadanivesa -------------- Process of Settlement
Sitadhyaksa --------------- Official in Crown lands
Gahapati ---------------- Landed gentry
Samaharta ---------------- Revenue Assessor

Q. Which tax was collected only in cash in Magadha
A  Hiranya

Q. List the fiscal measures which were expected to be adopted by the State during periods of emergency.

A. Different kinds of taxes can be imposed during an emergency like the levy of pranaya which literally meant a gift of affection. It amounted to 1/3 or 1/4 of the products according to the nature of the soil. It is usually interpreted as a voluntary gift but once put into practice, in reality, it must have become obligatory. Further,in times of emergency, the cultivators could be forced to raise two crops.

Q. List the main taxes and revenue officials of the Mauryan period.

A. Some of the taxes were

1) Land tax (Bhaga) was the main item of revenue. According to the texts, it was levied at the rate of 1/6th of the produce.

Pindakara - The peasants paid a tax called pindakara paid by husbandmen, which was assessed on groups of villages. Often the villages had to supply provisions to the royal army passing through their respective territories.

Hiranya - This is another kind of tax levied which is paid in cash, as the hiranya literally means gold

Bali - It is the traditionally known levy from the Vedic times, continued under the Mauryas.

Pranaya - It is the tax which was levied during the emergency. It amounted to 1/3 or 1/4 of the produce according to the nature of the soil. It is usually interpreted as a voluntary gift but once put into practice, in reality, it must have become obligatory. Further, in times of emergency, the cultivators could be forced to raise two crops. The Mauryas attached great importance to the assessment of land revenue and the highest officer in charge of this was the samaharta. The sannidhata was the chief custodian of the State treasury.

Q. The official in charge of mines was called in the Arthasastra
A.  Akaradhyaksa

Q. Kautilya lists the salaries of the highest-ranking officials as 48,000
A. Panas

Q. The overall supervision of commerce in the cities was the duty of
A. Panyadhyaksa

Q. The goods produced by the State were called
A. Rajapanya

Q. Outline in brief the important trade routes in Mauryan 1ndia

A. The main trade routes in northern Indian were along the river Ganges and the Himalayan foothills. Major centers like Rajagriha in Magadha and Kausambi, near present-day Allahabad, were connected in this way. Pataliputra, the capital of the Mauryas had a particularly strategic location and was connected by river and road in all four directions. The northern route going to such sites as Sravasti and Kapilavastu was connected through the city of Vaisali. From Kapilavastu this route linked up Kalsi, Hazara.and eventually led up to Peshawar. In the south, it was connected to Central

India and in the South-east to Kalinga. This eastern route turned southwards to finally reach Andhra and Karnataka. The other part of the eastern route continued down to the Ganges delta to Tamralipti which acted as an exit point for the south and south-east. From Kausambi moving westwards another route led to Ujjain. This continued either further west to the coast of Gujarat or west south across the Narmada and was regarded as dakshinapatha (southern route). The overland route to countries of the West went via Taxila near Islamabad.

Q. To what extent did the Mauryan State interfere in commodity production and trade?

A. The State had a monopoly in certain important spheres of activity. The Arthasastra provides for a superintendent of mines called akaradhyaksa whose chief function was to look for new mines and reopen old. Apart from mining metals, another area of State monopoly was mining salt. Thus state had a monopoly over

mining and trading in mineral products. Steps to organize trade and commodity production were part and parcel of State policy. This policy was aimed at augmenting its efficiency in economic spheres of activity and its revenues. Mauryan state also manufactured goods. Different kinds of goods in different categories were looked after By officials of particular departments. These goods were called rajapanya. The State was careful to choose those areas of commodity production and trade that were essential for its functioning and yielded good revenues. Steps were taken to provide

protection to guilds to facilitate trade and collecting revenues. Similarly, steps were taken to improve irrigation facilities to improve the agricultural economy and augment state resources.

Unit 20

Q. Discuss in about ten lines the relations between the King and the Council of Ministers in the Mauryan empire.

A. The Arthasastra, as well as the Asokan inscriptions, refer to a Council of Ministers. (Mantriparishad) and its functions. The Girnar Rock Edicts of Asoka mention about the functions of the Council:

# Rock Edict 3 implies that the Parishad was expected to see that new administrative measures were carried out by different categories of officials.

# Rock Edict VI mentions that the ministers can discuss the King's policy during his absence; suggest amendments; and decide upon any important matter which the King has left to them. Yet the Council had to report its opinion to the King immediately.

The power of the Council varied from time to time, yet its primary role remained that of an advisory body. This was because the final authority vested with the King. In Arthshastra Kautilya mentions that King should consult his ministers on issues like-

# consultation on how to start the works which the state wants to undertake,

# to determine the manpower and finances involved in carrying out these works,

# to determine the areas-where the works have to be carried out, and

# finding solutions to deal with calamities, etc.

Kautilya mentions that the work should be carried out according to the majority verdict (Bhuvyist) in the council but in case the King feels that the majority verdict will not be able to achieve the goal, he should decide according to his own thinking.

Q. On what basis we can say that the Mauryan city administration was well organized?

A. Megasthenes gave a vivid description of administration in Palibothra (Patliputra). This account, though different from that in the Arthasastra, helps us in understanding the city administration during this period. In this account, the city council was divided into six sub-councils or committees and each committee had five

members:

1) The first committee looked after industry and crafts. Its functions included inspection of such centers fixing the wages, etc.

2) The second committee looked after the foreigners. Its functions included; arranging for their food, stay and comfort, security, etc.

3) The third committee's work was the registration of births and deaths.

4) Looking after trade and commerce, the functions of the fourth committee included: inspection of weights and measures, controlling the market, etc.

5) The fifth committee inspected the manufactured goods, made provisions for their sale and a strict watch was kept to distinguish between new and second-hand goods.

6) The sixth committee collected taxes on the goods sold the rate being 1/10. Interestingly enough, there is no mention of such committees in the Arthasastra in spite of the well-defined plan of the city administration. However, we do find in this planning almost all the functions mentioned by Megasthenes. For example, in Arthasastra the functions of the fourth committee are performed by the Panyadhyaksha; the collection of taxes (Sixth Committee) was the responsibility of Sulkadhyaksha and registration of births and deaths were the work of Gopa. The head of the urban administration was called Nagariaka. He was assisted by two

subordinate officials - Gopa and Sthanika. Besides these, there were a host of officials whose functions have been elaborately defined. For example:

# Bandhanagaradhyaksha looked after jail.

# Rakshi i.e. the police, was to look after the security of the people.

# Work in the centers where goods were manufactured was looked after by a host of superintendents like the Lohadhyaksha, Sauvarnika, etc. The Arthasastra also refers to a variety of activities of the city administration, regulations related to them and penalties on their breach. These included:

# Sanitation and water sources

# checking adulteration,

# watch over inns, and

# precautions against fire, etc.

Q. The provincial administration was headed by -------- kumara

Q. At the village level, judicial powers were vested in --------- Gramika

Q. Discuss in about ten lines the sources of revenue and expenditure of the Mauryan state.

A. Kautilya has listed different resources from where revenue flowed into the state treasury which was looked after by an official Sannidhata.

# The cities collected revenues in the form of fines, sales tax (Sulka), exercise on sale of liquor, a kind of income tax imposed on the rich, etc. (The Arthasastra lists 21 such taxes collected by the Durga). The revenues from the rural areas were appropriated by the state in the form, of income from Crown lands (Sita), land

revenue (Bhaga) from cultivators, taxes on orchards, ferry charges, etc.

# As all the mines were under the control of the state, the mineral wealth was a regular source of income for the state.

# Taxes were levied on merchants traveling by road or waterways.

# Taxes on exports and imports, etc.

There were certain collections made directly by the state from the

people. The gamblers had to part with five percent of their winnings to the state and the merchants had to pay when their weights were tested and certified by the state officials. The state control over the armament industry and salt trade increased its

revenues. The state was also empowered to impose taxes in case of an emergency for increasing its earnings. Most of the revenue collections which went to the state treasury had their outflow in the form of expenditure on army, administration, salaries, king, etc.

The state also spend money on public works like -

# The state took considerable interest in irrigation projects like dams, ponds, canals, etc.

# There are many references to medicine men of various kinds during this period like ordinary physicians (Chikitsakah), midwives (Garbhavyadhi), etc. From Asokan inscriptions, we know that medical treatment and medicines were available to both men and animals.

3) The state also helped its citizens during natural calamities like floods, famines,, etc.

4) The Arthasastra mentions that the King should look after orphans, old unattended women, etc. To what extent these were actually carried out we do not know.

5) An important aspect of public works was the laying down and repair of roads. 

Q. List in five lines the main features of village administration.

A. The administrative units included a set up at the district level consisting of a number of villages and at the same time each village had its own administrative unit. The officials listed at the level of the district during this period were Pradeshta, Rajuka, and Yukta, the former being the overall in charge of the district. Their functions included:

# survey and assessment of land,

# tours and inspections,

# revenue collection, and

# maintaining law and order, etc.

The officials at this level were local people appointed and assisted by the villagers. Gopa and Sthanika are the two types of officers, acting as intermediaries between the district and village level administrative units. Their functions included:

# demarcating village boundaries,

# maintaining records of lands used for various purposes.

# recording income and expenditure of people, and

# recording taxes, revenues, and fines, etc.

Q. Discuss the various phases in the relations of Mauryas with other powers.

A. From the time of Chandragupta till the Empire came to an end we can divide the foreign relations of the Mauryas into two distinct phases) the initial phase or the phase of expansion

ii) the latter phase or the phase of consolidation. The initial phase was marked by a policy of securing trade routes and subjugating the Greek settlements in the north and north-west regions. The incorporation of central India gave them control over Dakshinapatha and brought them into the peninsula. It can be said that with the Kalinga War the initial phase of expansion came to an end. This phase was marked by an aggressive foreign policy. It was through war and subjugation that hostile regions were brought under control. Once the Mauryan expansion reached its limits the emphasis shifted to consolidation and having friendly relations not only with immediate neighbors but with far-off Countries. Contacts had been established with the western world and during the times of Bindusara there was a regular exchange of messengers, Strabo's account mentions Demiachos as a successor to Megasthenes in the Mauryan court.

Q. List the names of Yavana rulers mentioned in RE XIII.
A. Antiochus 2 of Syria
Ptolemy 2 of Egypt
Autigonas of Macedonia
Magas of Cyrene, and
Alexander of Epirus

Unit 21

Q. Discuss briefly the historical background against which the policy of Dhamma formulated.

A. The historical background against which the policy of Dhamma was formulated were -

Socioeconomic - The Mauryan period witnessed a change in the economic structure of society. With the use of iron, resulting in surplus production, a changeover took place from a simple rural economy to a pattern of the economy in which cities and towns also played an important part. The rise of urban centers points to a structural change in the economy requiring necessary adjustments in the society with more flexibility in social organization. The rigidity of the Brahmanical class sharpened the division within the society. The lower orders turned to the various heterodox sects

and this created social tensions. It was this situation in which emperor Asoka inherited the Mauryan throne.

Religious - The Brahmanical hold over society, assiduously built through the later the Vedic period was coming under increasing attack. The privileges of the priests, the rigidity of the caste system and the elaborate rituals were being questioned. The lower orders among the four castes began to favor the new sects. Under these

circumstances, the other religious sects appealed to the lower orders and to the emerging social classes. This further created religious tensions in society.

Polity - By the time, Asoka ascended the throne, the state system, over a period of more than two hundred years, had grown very elaborate and complex. It was characterized by:

# The political supremacy of one region (Magadha) over a vast territory which comprised many previous kingdoms, Gana-samghas, and areas where no organized states had existed before.

# Existence, within this vast territory, of various geographical regions, cultural areas, and of different faiths, beliefs and practices.

# Monopoly of force by a ruling class of which the emperor was the supreme head.

# Appropriation of a very substantial quantity of surplus from agriculture, commerce, and other sources.

# Existence of an administrative apparatus.

The complexity of the state system demanded an imaginative policy from the emperor which required minimal use of force in such a large empire having diverse forms of economy and religions. It could not have been controlled by an army alone. A more feasible alternative was the propagation of a policy that would work at an ideological level and reach out to all sections of the society. The policy of Dhamma was such an endeavor.

Q. Explain in ten lines the main principles of the policy of Dhamma

A. The principles of Dhamma were so formulated as to be acceptable to people belonging to different communities and following any religious sect. It emphasized on toleration and general behavior. Dhamma stressed on dual toleration-it

emphasized on toleration of people themselves and also toleration of their various beliefs and ideas. There is a stress on the notion of showing consideration towards slaves and servants; there is stress also on obedience to elders; generosity towards the needy, Brahmanas and Sramanas, etc. Asoka also pleaded for tolerance of different religious sects in an attempt to create a sense of harmony. The policy of Dhamma also laid stress on non-violence. Non-violence was to be practiced by giving up war and conquests and also as a restraint on the killing of animals. The policy of Dhamma also included certain welfare measures, like the planting of the trees, digging of wells, etc. Asoka attacked ceremonies and sacrifices practiced regularly on various occasions as meaningless.

Q. What is the importance of the Rock Edict X111 in the understanding of the policy of Dhamma?

A. The RE13 gives us insight information about the thought process developed by Ashoka. It has a vivid account of the horrors of the Kalinga war. It portrays he wanted to conquer the world through love and faith, he sent many missions to propagate Dhamma. Major Rock Edict X111 is of paramount importance in understanding the Asokan policy of Dhamma. The Rock Edict pleads for conquest by Dhamma instead of War. This is a logical culmination of the thought processes which began from the first Rock edict, and by conquest what is perhaps meant is the adaptation of the policy of Dhamma by a country, rather than its territorial control. The propagation of Dhamma included many measures for people's welfare. Centers for the medical

treatment of men and beasts were founded inside and outside the empire. Shady groves, wells, fruit orchards, and rest houses were laid out.

Unit 22

Q. What were the immediate administrative problems faced by the successors of Asoka.

A. The disorder that emerged in the administrative machinery after the death of Asoka is regarded as one of the important factors for the disintegration of the Mauryan empire. The immediate problem for Asoka's successors was whether to continue his policy of Dhamma and its predominance in the government. Another

related feature of the political importance of Dhamma was the existence of a large body of officials of the State called Dhammamahamattas. They had become very powerful and oppressive during the latter half of Asoka's reign. Asoka himself in

the First Separate Edict to the Mahamattas, stationed at Dhauli and Jaugada, asked them to ensure against oppression and to be just and humane.

Q. What was the crux of the problem in the administrative system of the Mauryas that caused disintegration under the later kings?

A. # Centralization of power - The nature of the Mauryan State necessitated a king of strong abilities. It was a system that required the king to be in direct touch with all aspects of the State's functionaries, Since these functionaries were ultimately held together by a power structure with the king at its center, once the

king became weak, the whole administration naturally weakened. Once the center became weak, the provinces too started breaking away.

# Personal loyalty of officials - The officials of the State were personally selected by the king and owed loyalty only to him. Once weak rulers came and ruled for a short duration of time, it resulted in an overwhelming number of new officials constantly emerging and owing only personal loyalty to their respective kings and not to the State. Under such circumstances, it was local rulers and princes who were earlier subdued under the Mauryan empire found it easy to emerge with these traditional ties to support them, as important centers of power. The provincial governments under the later Maurayas thus increasingly began to question the Central authority.

# The Mauryan bureaucracy was under stress and strain resulting in an inefficient administration unable to maintain social order in general.

# The extremely complex system of spies employed for providing information on erring officials had worked efficiently till Ashoka, but it collapsed under later Mauryan kings. There was thus no means through which the kings could either gauge the public opinion in the empire or, check on the corruption.

# A conscious loosening of military control on behalf of the Mauryan kings started during the Ashokan period was also a major political reason for their decline.

Q. List the views of those scholars that advocate Asoka's policies being responsible for Mauryan decline

A. 1) Some scholars maintain that Pushyamitra Sunga, who killed the last Mauryan emperor represented a strong Brahmanical reaction against the pro-Buddhist policy of Asoka and the pro-Jain policy of some of his successors. Moreover, the Satavahanas who rose to power in the Deccan after the Mauryas were also said to have been Brahmanas. These scholars list a series of acts done

by Asoka himself which may have antagonized the Brahmanas. For example, the ban on animal sacrifices is considered one which was especially resented, since this action was taken by a Shudra King (according to the Purana accounts the Mauryas are listed as Shudras). They suggest that the Dhammamahamattas, as special officers of Dhamma appointed by Asoka, destroyed the prestige of the Brahmanas. These officials disallowed Brahmans to continue their traditional laws of punishment and other-Smriti injunctions.

2) Another group of scholars gives emphasis to Asoka's pacifist policies as a factor for Mauryan decline. They think that this was responsible for undermining the strength of the empire. This explanation focuses on Asoka's policy of ahimsa or non-violence. The harmful effect of this policy is provinces who had become

oppressive and ought to have been controlled. Non-violence on the part of the king also meant that he no longer exerted his control over officials particularly in the provinces who had become oppressive and ought to have been controlled, Citing examples from Buddhist stories in the Divyavadana , this argument goes on to show that revolts in the provinces had been taking place.