EHI - 4

7th Part

Q.  Discuss the working of the system of Jagir under the Mughals.    

A.      The Mughal Emperors continued the revenue assignments system of Delhi sultans. The system was developed to appropriate the surplus from the peasantry and distribute it among the nobles, This also included the administration of the area by the assignee. These assignments were given in lieu of cash salaries. The areas assigned were generally called jagir, and its holders jagirdar. It was not land that was assigned, but the income/ revenue from the land/area was given to the jagirdars. This system developed over a period of time and underwent many changes before stabilizing. However, the basic framework was developed during Akbar's reign. 

Organisation of Jagir System

       During Akbar's period all the territory was broadly divided into two: khalisa and jagir.

     The revenue from the first went to the Imperial treasury & that from jagir was assigned to jagirdars in lieu of their salary in cash (naqd) according to their rank. Some mansabdars got cash salary, and, hence, they were called naqdi. A few were given both jagir and cash. The bulk of the territory was assigned to mansabdars according to their rank. The estimated revenue was called jama or jamadami as it was calculated in dam (a small copper coin, 1/40th of the silver rupaya on the average). The jama included land revenue, inland transit duties, port customs, and other taxes which were known as sair Jihat. Another term used by the revenue officials was hasil, that is, the amount of revenue actually collected. 

           In the 31st year of Akbar's reign, the jama of the khalisa in the province of Delhi, Awadh, and Allahabad amounted to less than 5% of the total revenue. Under Jahangir, almost 9/10 of the territory was assigned in jagir and only 1/10 was available for the khalisa. The ratio of jagir and khalisa kept fluctuating. Under Shah Jahan, it rose to one-eleventh and, by the 20th year, it was nearly one-seventh. The trend continued in the next reign; in the 10th year of Aurangzeb, the jama of the khalisa amounted to almost one-fifth of the total. However, in the later part of Aurangzeb's reign, there was a great pressure on the khalisa as the number of claimants for jagir increased with the increase of the number of mansabdars.

           Another important feature of the jagir system was the shifting of jagir-holders from one jagir to another for administrative reasons. This system of transfers checked the jagirdars from developing local roots. At the same time, its disadvantage was that it discouraged the jagirdars from taking long term measures for the development of their areas. They were merely interested in extracting as much revenue as possible in a short time.

Various Types of Jagirs

There were generally four types of revenue assignments:

a)  jagirs, which were given in lieu of pay, were known as jagir tankha;

b)  jagirs given to a person on certain conditions were called mashrut jagirs;

c)  jagirs which involved no obligation of service and were independent of rank were called Inam jagirs, and

d)  jagirs which were assigned to zamindars (chieftains) in their homelands, were called watan jagirs. Under Jahangir some Muslim nobles ware given jagirs resembling watan jagir called al-tamgha.

               Tankha jagirs are transferable every three or four years, watan jagirs remained hereditary and non-transferable. Sometimes watan jagir was converted into khalisa for a certain period as Aurangzeb did in the case of Jodhpur in 1679. When a zamindar or a tributary chief was made a mansabdar, he was given jagir tankha,, apart from his watan jagir, at another place if the salary of his rank was more then the income from his watan jagir. Maharaja Jaswant Singh, holding watan jagir in Marwar, held jagir, tankha in Hissar.

Management of Jagirs

            The jagirdar was allowed to collect only authorized revenue in accordance with the Imperial regulations. He employed his own officials (karkun) like amil, fotadar, etc. who acted on his behalf.

             The Imperial officials kept watching on the jagirdars. The diwan of the suba was supposed to prevent the oppression of the peasants by the jagirdars. From the 20th year of Akbar, Amin was posted in each province to see that the jagirdars were following Imperial regulations regarding the collection of revenue. The faujdar often helped the jagirdar to collect revenue whenever difficulties arose.

Q.  Write a note on the Mughal Mansabdari system.                 

Q.  Discuss the growth of Mansab system under Jahangir & Shahjahan.   

Q.  Give a brief account of the Mansabdari system. What changes were introduced in it after Akbar?   

Q.  Discuss the changes introduced by Shahjahan in Mughal mansab system.

Q.  Explain the evolution and working of Jagir and Mansab system under the Mughals.                                             

A.  The word mansab means a place or position and therefore it means rank in the mansab system under the Mughals. During Babur's time, the term mansabdar was not used; instead, another term wajhdar was employed. The latter differed in some ways from the mansab system that evolved under the Mughals after Babur.

Akbar gave mansabs to both military and civil officers on the basis of their merit or service to the state. 

       Akbar had established 66 grades of mansabdars ranging from commanders of 10 horsemen to 10,000 horsemen. Mansab denoted three things:

i)  It determined the status of its holder (the mansabdar) in the official hierarchy.

ii)  It fixed the pay of the holder.

iii)  It also laid upon the holder the obligation of maintaining a specified number of contingent with horses and equipment.

The Dual Ranks: Zat and Sawar

      Initially, a single number represented the rank, personal pay and the size of the contingent of mansabdar, In such a situation if a person held a mansab of 500, he was to maintain a contingent of 500 and receive allowances to maintain it. After some time, the rank of mansabdar instead of one number, came to be denoted by two numbers - zat and sawar.

          The first number (zat) determined the mansabdar's personal pay (talab-khassa) and his rank in the organization. The second number (sawar) fixed the number of horses and horsemen to be maintained by the mansabdar and, accordingly, the amount he would receive for his contingent (tabinan).

  The Three Classes of Mansabdars

       In 1595-96, the mansabdars were classified into three, groups :

a)  those with horsemen (sawar) equal to the number of the zat;

b)  those with horsemen half or more than half of the number of the zat, and

c)  those whose sawar rank was less than half of their zat rank.

The sawar rank was either equal or less than the zat. Even if the former was higher,

the mansabdar's position in the official hierarchy would not be affected. For example, a mansabdar with 4000 zat and 2000 sawar (400012000 in short) was higher in rank

than a mansabdar of 3000l.3000, although the latter had a higher number of horsemen under him.

           But there are exceptions to this rule particularly when the mansabdar was serving in a difficult terrain amidst the rebels. In such cases, the state often increase the sawar rank without altering the zat rank. Thus , the system was not a static one, it changed to meet the circumstances.

         Another development that took place was the introduction of do aspa sih aspa under Jahangir. if a mansabdar held a mansab of 4000 zat/4000 sawar, he may be granted huma do aspa sih aspa. In this case, the original sawar rank would be ignored, and the mansabdar will maintain double the number of do aspa sib aspa (here 4000 + 4000 = 8000). This was done as Jahangir, after becoming emperor, wanted to promote nobles of his confidence and strengthen them militarily. Do aspa sih aspa was a way out to grant additional sawar rank without disturbing the zat rank or mansab hierarchy. It also meant a saving fa the state by not increasing the zat rank. 

Appointment and Promotion of Mansabdars

The mir Bakshi generally presented the candidates to the Emperor who recruited them directly. But the recommendation of the leading nobles and governors of the provinces were also usually accepted. Granting of mansab was a prerogative of the Emperor. He could appoint anybody as mansabdar. The most favored categories were the sons and close kinsmen of persons who were already in service. This group was called khanazad. Another group which was given preference was of those who held high positions in other kingdoms. The main areas from which such people came from the Uzbek and Safavi Empires and the Deccan kingdoms. These included Irani. Turani, Iraqi and Khurasani. The rulers of autonomous principalities formed yet another group that received preferential treatment in recruitment and promotions. The main beneficiaries of this category were the Rajput kings.

Maintenance of Troops and Payment

Mansabdars were asked to present their contingents for regular inspection and physical verification. The job of the inspection was wormed by the mir bakshi's department. Under Shah Jahan it was laid down that if a mansabdar was posted in the same province where he held jagir, he had to muster one-third of the contingents of his sawar rank. In case he was posted outside he had to muster one

fourth. If posted in Balkh and Samarqand, he had to maintain one-fifth. The mansabdars were generally paid through revenue assignments (jagirs). It is estimated that 80% of the total revenue resources of the Empire were appropriated by 1,571 mansabdars. 

Q.  Discuss the racial composition of the Mughal ruling class. What was there share in the revenue resources of the Mughal empire?      

Q.  What was the composition of the Mughal Ruling class? How did the Mughal ruling class utilize the revenue resources at its disposal?          

A.      After its first phase of development during the reign of Babur and Humayun and the early years of Akbar, the Mughal ruling class came to consist of certain well-recognized racial groups. The important ones were Turanis, Iranis, Afghans, Shaikhzadas, Rajputs and also the Deccanis (Bijapuris, Haideraabadis, and Marathas). However, mere fulfillment of certain criteria of merit and competence was not the sole requirement to gain entry into it: clan or family links were the most important considerations for recruitment. 

              The khanazads (the house-born ones), who were the sons and descendants of those officers (mansabdars) who were already in the Mughal service, were the best and foremost claimants. They constituted almost half of the ruling class throughout the Mughal period and the remaining half of the ruling class comprised of a variety of persons not belonging to the families already in service. The zamindars of the chieftains were one of them.

           Nobles and high officers of other states were also taken into the Mughal ruling class on account of their experience, status, and influence. Leading commanders of the enemy state, in particular, were offered tempting ranks to make .them desert their masters. A very small portion of the Mughal ruling class consisted of persons belonging to the accountant castes, that is, Khatris, Kayasthas, etc. They were usually appointed in the Financial departments on low ranks, but they could rise to higher ones. Scholars, saints/sufis and theologians, etc. also received ranks and offices in the Mughal service.

Racial and Religious Groups

        Turanis, Iranis, Afghans, Shaikhzadas, Rajputs, and Marathas -who provided new recruits fur the Mughal ruling class. These elements were taken into the Mughal service largely as a result of historical circumstances, but partly (as for example the Rajputs) as a result of the planned imperial policy of integrating all these elements into a single imperial service. 

The Foreign Elements - Turanis and Iranis

The foreign elements in the Mughal ruling class comprised largely the Taranis (or the Central Asians) and Iranis (also called Khurasanis and Iraqis). According to the Ai'n-i Akbari, about 70 percent of Akbar's nobles were foreigners by origin. This high

proportion of foreigners continued under Akbar's successors and among them, Iranis enjoyed the most dominant position. 

The Afghans

The Afghans had been distrusted by the Mughals, especially suspected after the Mughal restoration under Humayun. Most of them were kept at a distance by Akbar. They, however, improved their position under Jahangir who assigned a high position to Khan Jahan Lodi. During Shah Jahan's reign, the Afghans again lost the imperial trust. During the Aurangzeb reign, however, the number of the Afghan nobles considerably increased. This was mainly because of the influx from the Bijapur kingdom.

Indian Muslims 

The Indian Muslims, better known as Shaikhzadas, comprised mainly the Saiyids of Barha and the Kambus and certain other important clans.

Rajputs and Other Hindus 

          Rajputs and other Hindu nobles were inducted in the Mughal ruling class during the reign of Akbar who adopted a friendly and liberal attitude towards them. The Hindu nobles in general and Rajputs, in particular, achieved a position of respect and honor in the reign of Akbar which they continued to enjoy down to Aurangzeb's reign. With a slight fall (21.6per cent) in the first phase of Aurangzeb's reign (1658-78), the number of Hindu mansabdars remained almost the same as what it had been during Akbar (22.5 percent) and Shah Jahan's (22.4 percent). During the last phase of Aurangzeb's reign (1679-1707), however, the proportion of the Hindu nobles appreciated to 31.6 percent. The increase in the number of Hindus during this period was because of the influx of the Marathas. 

DISTRIBUTION OF REVENUE RESOURCES AMONG THE RULING CLASS

82% of the total revenue resources of the empire were appropriated by 1,671 mansabdars, While the top 12 mansabdars controlled as much as 18.52% of the total income of the Empire, the remaining 1,149 mansabdars controlled only 30% of the revenue. Thus. there was an immense concentration of revenue resources in the hands of a few persons during the time of Akbar. 

Lifestyle 

                With huge amounts of money at their disposal, the ruling class led a life of great pomp and show. They maintained the large establishment of wives, servants, camels, and horses. They also spent on the construction of stately houses and works of public utility like sarais, hammams (public baths), wells, step-wells (bablis), water tanks, markets, roads, gardens, religious and educational buildings such as mosques, madrasas, khanqahs, tombs, and temples. The nobles maintained their own karkhanas to manufacture luxury items for their own consumption. Carpets, gold-embroidered silks, and high-quality jewelry were the main items produced. Besides, they imported a large number of luxury articles from different countries.