EHI - 3

7th Part

Q.  Account for some of the major stages of development in the Tughluq architecture. 

A.    A new architectural style came into vogue in the buildings of this period during Tughluq. Judging from the remains, only the first three rulers of this house appear to have been interested in the art of building. However, the architecture of this period can be divided into two main groups. To the first group belong the construction of Ghiyasuddin and Muhammad Tughluq, and the other to those of Feroz Taghluq. The general features of the Tughluq style of architecture are listed below which is unique and different from earlier times :

a) Stone rubble is the principal building material and the walls are in most cases plastered.

b)  The walls and bastions are invariably battered, the effect is most marked at the comers.

c) Use of a new shape of the arch- the four centered arch-necessitating its reinforcement with a supporting beam. This arch-beam combination is a hallmark of the Tughluq style. The pointed horse-shoe arch of the preceding style was abandoned because of its narrow compass and therefore the inability to span wider spaces.

d)  The emergence of a pointed dome with the clearly visible neck in contrast with the rather stifled dome of the preceding style. 

e)  Introduction of encaustic tiles as an element of decoration in the panels of the buildings.

f) Emergence, in the tombs of this period, an octagonal plan which came to be copied and perfected by the Mughals in the 16th-17th century.

g) An additional feature was the element of reduced ornament, confined mostly to inscribed borders and medallions in spandrels executed in plaster or stucco.

Q.  Calligraphy in the Delhi Sultanate.   

A.  Calligraphy was the most revered art in the Islamic world and was used as a decorative feature both on stone and on paper. In the hierarchy of craftsmen, a calligrapher was placed above the illuminator and painter. However, the calligraphy of the Quran became one of the foremost forms of book art, where copies of the Quran were produced on a majestic and expansive scale. The earliest known copy of the Quran is dated 1399. It was calligraphed at Gwalior, and has a variety of ornamental motifs, derived both from Iranian and Indian sources. Calligraphy is an important element of decorative art in the buildings of this period. The Quranic sayings are inscribed on buildings in an angular, sober and

monumental script, known as a kufi. They may be found in any part of the building -frames of the doors, ceilings, wall panels, niches, etc., and in a variety of Material stone, stucco, and painting.

Q.  Account for some of the major stages of development in the Tughluq architecture. 
A.  With their architecture, as revealed in Alai Darwaza (built 1305) at the Qutub complex, and the Jamat Khana Masjid (built 1325) at Nizamuddin, a marked change in style appears. In the evolution of Indo-Islamic architecture, this phase occupies a
key position as it exhibits a distinct influence of the Seljuq architectural traditions (a Turkish tribe ruling- over Central Asia and Asia Minor in 11-13 century) as also certain salient features of composition which were adopted in the succeeding styles. 
The characteristic features of this phase may be listed below :
a) Employment of true arch pointed horse-shoe in shape.
b) The emergence of the true dome with recessed arches under the squinch.
c) Use of red sandstone and.decorative marble reliefs as new building materials.

d) The appearance of lotus bud fringe on the underside of the arch - a Seljuq feature.

e) The emergence of new masonry-facing, consisting of a narrow course of headers - alternating with a much wider course of stretchers again a Seljuq feature. In addition, the decorative features characterized by calligraphy, geometry, and arabesque now became much bolder and profuse.

Q. Discuss the growth of regional literature in South India between the 13th to 16th centuries. 

A.  Tamil Literature - In 13th century Villiputturar produced the Tamil version of the Mahabharata which is called Bharatam and which became popular among the Tamil speaking people. He introduced the tradition of using Sanskrit words and literary expressions in Tamil poetry. His contemporary, Arunagirinatha composed Tiruppagal - a lyrical and devotional work in praise of god Murugan. The period is also known for elaborate commentaries written by Vaishnava scholars. Another great author, Kachiappa Sivachariar composed Kanda-Purana in praise of God Subramanya.

Telugu Literature - Literature in the Telugu language made great progress from the 13th century onwards. During the 13th and 14th centuries, Telugu translations and adaptations of Sanskrit works were produced. The most important Telugu poet in the first half of the 14th century was Errapragda. He popularized the Champu genre of literary writing and composed the Ramayana in this genre. He translated a part of the Mahabharata and another Vaishnava Sanskrit Work Harivamsa into Telugu. Srinatha (1365-1440) was another great Telugu writer who translated Sriharsha’s Naishadha Kavya into Telugu. His contemporary Potana was a great poet who translated the Bhagavata Purana into Telugu. Telugu literature achieved its highest position in tile sixteenth century during the reign of the Vijaynagar king, Krishnadeva Raya, who himself was a poet in both Sanskrit and Telugu & who wrote Amukta Malyada in Telugu. One important characteristic of the Telugu literature of this period was the increasing influence of Sanskrit on the Telugu language.

Kannada Literature - 14th-century Virasaiva(religious movement) poet, Bhima Kavi composed the Basava Purana. Hoysala rulers patronized many Kannada poets and writers. One of them, Rudra Bhatta wrote Jagannathavijaya in the chimpu genre. This work was an adaptation from the Sanskrit work Vishnu Purana. The period between the 14th and 16th centuries saw further growth of the Kannada literature under the patronage of the Vijaynagar kings and their feudatories. One of the greatest poets of this period was Kumara Vyasa who composed the Kannada version of Mahabharata in the middle of the 15th century.

Malayalam Literature - Malayalam is the youngest of the South Indian languages originated as a dialect of Tamil in the Malabar region. Gradually, it separated itself from Tamil and acquired independent status in the fourteenth century. The political isolation of the Malabar region from Tamilnadu & the introduction of new linguistic forms by foreigners contributed to the development of Malayalam as an independent language. The earliest literature was in an oral form consisting of songs and ballads. The earliest literary composition was the Rama Charitam, produced in the 14th century. From the sixteenth century onwards, Malayalam began to come under the dominant influence of Sanskrit and borrowed a great deal from the latter.

Q.  List major regional architectural styles developed after the decline of the Delhi Sultanate. 

A.   Eastern India - Two major strands of architectural style emerged in this region which is in the regional state of Bengal and Jaunpur. 

Bengal - Independent building style, distinct from the one prevalent at Delhi, developed at the beginning of the fourteenth century and lasted for a period of nearly 250 years. Bengal style spread in all parts of the region, but most of the prominent buildings were located within the boundary of the Malda district. The two principal cities Gaur and Pandua enjoyed the status of the capital seat of the regional ruling power and hold many buildings. The building art of Bengal is generally divided into the following three phases of which the first two are preliminary stages and the third its ultimate development into a specific style.

#  The first phase is from A.D. 1200-1340 (During most of this time Gaur was the capital seat. Only in later years it was shifted to Pandua).

#  The second extended from A.D. 1340 to 1430, and

#  The third phase from A.D.1442 to 1576 when the Mughals captured the province. During this phase, the capital was shifted back to Gaur. The data in the form of buildings for the first phase is scanty. Even where two or three structures survive they are in a badly ruined state. It is, nonetheless, evident that the buildings raised during this period were wholesale conversions of the existing Hindu structures. Similarly, the second phase is also deficient in data as it is represented by a solitary example of Adina Masjid at Pandua (built 1364). It introduces two new features in the architectural style.

#  the dropped arch, have span greater than its radii & centers at the import level &

#  the method of raising the roof 

       The third phase is the most remarkable as it depicts the emergence of a semi-indigenous style in tune with the peculiar environment and local conditions in Bengal. Now, bamboos were used extensively and for decoration terracotta tiles, was adopted.

Jaunpur -  The surviving architecture of Jaunpur consists exclusively of mosques. The Sharqi Architecture of Jaunpur carries a distinct impact of the Tughluq style, the battering effect of its bastions & minarets & the use of arch-and-beam combination in the openings being the two most prominent features. However, the most striking feature of the Jaunpur style is the design of the facade of the mosques. It is composed of lofty propylons with sloping sides raised in the center of the sanctuary screen ex. Atala Masjid (built-in 1408) and the Jami Masjid.

Western Style - The regional style of architecture is almost exclusively confined to Gujarat. Gujarat: This regional style flourished for a period of some two hundred and fifty - years beginning the early 14th century. The founders of Gujarat style of

The indo-Islamic architecture was, in fact, the governors of the Khalji Sultans of Delhi. There were three different phases of the Gujarat style :

#  The first phase lasting for the first half of the 14th'century marked by the demolition of the Hindu temples and their reconversion into Muslim buildings.

#  The second phase prevailing mostly during the first half of the 15th century and showing signs of maturity of a distinctive style.

#  Finally, the phase beginning in the latter half of the 15th century when Gujarat style emerges in its own magnificent form. 

         The Gujarat style of architecture is the most indigenous in character which is highly Influenced by Hindu or Jain temples. Almost all the mosques from the second and third phases are composed in this manner.

Central India - In Central India, the development of Indo-Islamic architecture remained confined within the Malwa region. Indo-Islamic architecture in Malwa is located essentially within the confines of two cities, Dhar and Mandu, though some buildings are available at Chanderi. The Sultans of Dhar and Mandu have left a rich architectural legacy, the main buildings being mosques, tombs, and palaces. The buildings at Dhar and Mandu derive many features from the Tughluq architecture such as the battered walls, the fringed arch, and the arch-beam combination. Its own distinctive features also emerged. Some of the more prominent features are - 

#  the most important is an innovative technique by which the two separate structural systems of the arch & the lintel have been combined in Malwa architecture.

#  Another notable feature of the Malwa buildings is the construction of steps of considerable length leading to their entrances. This became necessary due to the use of unusually high plinths on which most of the important buildings are raised.

#  The most striking impressions conveyed by Malwa style are not structural but the result of decorative properties. In these buildings, the element of color assumes a significant role. Two separate methods for obtaining this color effect were used The first is the use of various colored stones and marble, and the second is by means of encaustic tiles.

Deccan - The Indo-Islamic architecture that developed in the Deccan from 14th century onwards under the Bahmanis acquired a definitely regional character quite early in its growth. The Deccan style of architecture consisted basically of the fusion of :

a) the architectural system in vogue at Delhi under the Sultans, particularly the Tughluq form, and

b) the architecture of Persia.

         The architectural developments in the Deccan may be divided broadly into three phases corresponding on each occasion to a change in the seat of the government. The first phase begins in 1347 at the capital city of Gulbarga. The second phase begins in

1425 when the seat of power is transferred to the city of Bidar. And finally, with the change of capital again in 1512 to the city of Golconda, begins the third phase lasting till 1687, the year of Mughal conquest. 

Gulbarga - The first phase of architectural development in the Deccan started in 1347. For the most part, they followed the contemporary Tughluq architecture of the North. The Jami Masjid (1367) inside the Gulbarga fort was, however, different and unique but was never replicated again. 

Bidar: The Brahman capital was transferred to Bidar, a fortress town, in 1425 by ruler Ahmad Shah (1422-36). Soon the new capital saw a flurry of building activity as within its walls sprang up palaces with large audience halls & hammams, mosques, a madrasa, and royal tombs. The substantive style of architecture was now composed of forms very largely borrowed from Iran, but modified and adapted to suit local conditions Some important features of Bidar style were:-

#   Since color was the characteristic feature of Iranian architecture, palaces at Bidar show a brilliant scheme of the use of colored tiles and the mural painting. The glazed tiles which covered the exteriors were imported by sea from Iran.

#  There is a distinctive change in the shape of some of the domes in the buildings at Bidar. The drums of these domes are made tall so as to project the domes in full view.

         The fall of the Bahmani Sultanate towards the beginning of the 16th century brought the first phase of the Deccan style to a close.

Vijaynagar Empire -  It is one of the most important historical and architectural sites as it is the only Hinged city from the pre-modern period of which extensive remains still exist above ground. The Vijaynagar style of architecture was distributed throughout South India, but the finest and most characteristic group of buildings is to be seen in the city of Vijaynagar itself. This city had a great advantage as granite and dark green chlorite stony both used extensively as a building material is abundant nearby. The expanse of the city Vijaynagar at the height of its glory measured some 26 sq. km and it was enclosed with a stone wall. Besides palaces and temples, the city had extensive waterworks and many secular buildings such as elephant stables and the Lotus Mahal. The use of monolithic multiple pillars in the temple at Vijaynagar testifies this fact. The basic elements of Vijaynagar style are listed thus :

#  The use of pillars for architectural as well as decorative purpose is on an unprecedented scale.

#  Numerous compositions are used in raising the pillars, but the most striking and also the most frequent is one in which the shaft becomes a central core with which an animal is attached. 

#  Another distinguishing feature is the use of huge reverse-curve eaves at the Cornice giving the pavillions a dignified appearance.

#  As noted above, pillars form an integral part of Vijaynagar architecture, almost all of which have ornamental brackets as their capitals. Usually, this bracket is a pendant known as bodegai in local parlance. The occurrence of this pendant is an index reliable of the building in the Vijaynagar group. 

            The glory of the Vijaynagar empire ended in A.D. 1565 at the battle of Talikota when the combined army of the Sultans of the Deccan inflicted a crushing defeat on the Vijaynagar ruler Ram Raya.

Q.  Write a note on the development of music in the 13th to 15th centuries. 

A.  Sangeet Ratnakar is the earliest known treatise on music which was composed by Sharangdev sometime between 1210-47 at the court of the Yadav ruler of Devagiri. Besides being a treatise on music -vocal as well as instrument Sangeet Ratnakar also delves into the details of the contemporary dance forms. It describes as many as 264 ragas classified into major and minor categories. This text is the first systematic exposition of the various elements of music. 

          In the 15th century two interesting musical treatises from Gujarat. The first one is called Sangeet Sudhakar and is attributed to Haripal Dev, the ruler of Saurashtra. It is the herb for the first time that the Indian musical form is divided into the Hindustani and the Karnatak styles. The other text is a Persian work called

Ghunyat-ul Munya, meaning 'pleasure of desire'. Unfortunately, the manuscript copy of this text is incomplete with its first folio & the last four Sub-sections missing. Thus the name the author is lost forever. This text has been of great value in several respects. It is the earliest treatise and commentary in Persian, on music and some of the Sanskrit texts on music respectively. Besides that, Ghunyat extensively uses some such Sanskrit works on music which have become extinct now. 

       In the 15th century, a text called Raag Tarangini became popular composed of Lochan Kavi. It contains illustrations from both Jaidev (of Geet Govind) and Vidyapati. Raag Tarangini is important for having initiated an alternative system of the division of rags.  Music got an impetus under the Sharqi rulers of Jaunpur in the second half of the 15th century. A connoisseur and an expert in his own right, Sultan Hussain Sharqi (1458-99) promoted vocal music by introducing a variant form of rendering khayal the Kalawanti khayal. He is also credited with some new rag, such as Jaunpuri Todi, Sindhu Bhairavi, Sindura, and Rasuli Todi. In the Vijaynagar Empire, the most significant treatise on the South Indian style is the Swarmel Kala Nidhi written by Ramamatya which is considered as the most authentic treatise of its kind and is frequently referred to by the music lovers today.

Q.  Elaborate on the main characteristics of painting traditions in India during the Sultanate period. 

A.   Western Style Painting - The Western Indian style was fully formed by the end of the 14th century. Paper manuscripts begin to appear regularly from the middle of the 14th century. Some important points are - 

#  Painting in these manuscripts is in a single plane, contained within a sometimes brilliant but always brittle line. The figures have been drawn on a red or ultramarine background.

#  Paper is seen as a surface to be decorated with colors in patterns, yielding in the best examples a brilliant jewel-like surface. The number of pigments used has increased- costly pigments such as ultramarine, crimson, gold and silver are used in increasing quantities.

#  Architectural elements are reduced to essentials. The hieratic little figures, and sometimes animals as well as household furniture, are little more than pictograms occupying boxes in a geometrical composition.

#  Mannerisms include the extension of the further eye, the swelling torso, and a particularly tortuous arrangement of legs in seated figures. Men and women are often practically indistinguishable.

           A careful study of the illustrated manuscripts in the Western Indian style makes it evident that they were apparently mass-produced at the great Jain centers of Pattan and Ahmadabad and are only superficially rich. Much rarer and far more beautiful are manuscripts individually created by professional artists for discerning patrons. 

Provincial Development -

Calligraphy - 

1)  Jaunpur : The Jaunpur School of Calligraphy flourished in the latter part of the 15th and first part of the 16th century. The manuscripts of the Quran calligraphed under this school use :

#  a script is known as Bihari,

#  crimson color in the frames for the text rather heavily.

#  much bolder designs of arabesque and creeper, with more inventive medallions in their illuminative content

2) Ahmedabad: The Ahmedabad School owes its origin to Sultan Mahmad Begarha of Gujarat; it lasted for about half a century (c: 1425-75). The script used for writing the Quran in this school is known as suluth. It was a serpentine, static script, used mostly in the Middle East for writing chapter-headings and inscriptions.

The Deccan Painting -  A distinct style of painting in the Deccan emerges in the kingdoms of Ahmadnagar, Bijapur, and Golconda in the late 15th and early 16th centuries. The use of daring colors--purple and yellow, pink and green, brown and blue - the sophistication and artistry of their compositions, and the traditional Deccani costume. The Deccani style drew on many sources including the Irani tradition. Some of the distinguishing features :

#  The faces in this style are commonly painted in three-quarters.

#  The grounds are shown as sprigged, i.e. sprayed with flowers or similar motifs.

#  Another Deccani feature is the reduction of buildings to totally flat screen-like panels. 

#  A typically Irani influence in some paintings is the golden sky.

#  And suggestive of the Chinese influence in some paintings are pink and green flowering plants, lotus and chrysanthemum.

Q.  Bhakti movement in Maharashtra.   
A.  Like other Vaishnava bhakti movements, the Maharashtra bhakti tradition drew its basic inspiration from that of the Bhagavata Purana. In addition, it was also influenced by the Saiva nathpanthi who was quite popular in the "lower" classes of the Maharashtrian society during the 1Ith and 12th centuries and who
composed their verses in Marathi. Jnaneswar (1275-1296) was the pioneer bhakti saint of Maharashtra. He wrote an extensive commentary on the Bhagavad Gita popularly called Jnanesvari. This was one of the earliest works of Marathi literature and served as the foundation of the bhakti ideology in Maharashtra. He was the author of many hymns called abhangs. Namdev (1270-1350) belonged to tailor caste. He is considered to be the link between the Maharashtrian bhakti movement and North Indian monotheistic movement. His bhakti songs have also been included in the Adi Granth. In Maharashtra. Namdev is considered to be a part of the varkari tradition (Vaishnava devotional tradition), but in the North Indian monotheistic tradition he is remembered as a nirguna saint, Other prominent bhakti saints of Maharashtra were Eknath (1533-99) and Tukaram (1598- 1650).