EHI - 3

5th Part  (Block7)

Q.  Who were the Afaqis and the Deccanis? To what extent could they be held responsible for the decline of the Bahmani kingdom? 

Q. Who was Afaqis? Examine the conflict between Afaqis and Dakhanis in the Bahmani kingdom. 

A.     Nobles played a crucial role not only as consolidators but also as kingmakers in the Sultanate. Every Sultan's interest was to win the loyalty of his nobles. The same tradition continued in the Bahmani kingdom as well. Right from Alauddin Bahman Shah's reign there three factions: one which helped Alauddin Bahman Shah in establishing an independent kingdom in the Deccan; the other was the Tughluq faction and the third faction comprised of local chiefs and vassals who had personal interests.

             From Alauddin Mujahid's reign (1375-78) onwards, a new factor was introduced in the composition of the nobility, i.e. the Afaqis. This word means 'universal'-persons who were uprooted and hence did not belong to any region. These Afaqis had migrated from Iran, Transoxiana, and Iraq. But it was during Ghiyasuddin Tahamtan's reign, in 1397, that the real clash between the Dakhnis and the Afaqis began when the Sultan appointed many Afaqis to higher posts: for example, Salabat Khan was appointed the governor of Berar. Appointment of the Afaqis to such high posts which were earlier held by the Dakhnis greatly raised dissatisfaction among the old nobility and the Turkish faction under the leadership of Taghalchin.  Taghalchin succeeded in reducing their influence as early as 1397 when he successfully conspired the murder of Ghiyasuddin and again Dakhnis who were the locals who had the upper hand. Ahmad 1 (1422-36) who for the first time

appointed Khalaf Hasan Basri, an Afaqi (with whose help he got the throne), to the highest office of wakil-i Sultanat and conferred on him the highest title of malik-ut tujjar (prince of merchants). This phenomenal rise was the result of the continuous expression of loyalty shown by the Afaqis compared to the Dakhnis. The Afaqis helped him in his escape during his Vijaynagar campaign and were suitably rewarded much to the anger of Dakhanis. Ahmad 1 recruited a special force of the Afaqi archers. Similar other favors were also showered on them. This policy created great resentment among the Dakhnis. Clashes between these two groups can be seen during Ahmad's Gujarat campaign when, on account of the non-cooperation of the Dakhnis, the Bahmani arms had to face defeat. This gulf widened further during Ahmad 2’s reign. At the time of the attacks of the Khandesh army on account of the noncooperation of the Dakhnis, only the Afaqis could be despatched. Humayun Shah (1458-1461) tried to maintain equilibrium between the two factions. During Ahmad Ill's reign (1461-b5 A.D.), the Dakhnis felt that much power was concentrated into the hands of the Afaqis with Khwaja-i Jahan Turk, Malik-ut tujjar and Mahmud Gawan at the helm of affairs. On the other hand, the Afaqis were dissatisfied because the power which they enjoyed under Ahmad 11's reign was greatly reduced under the latter's successor. Mahmud Gawan, the chief minister of Muhammad I11 (1463-1482), also tried to maintain the equilibrium between the two. But after Mahmud Gawan,  the equilibrium was disturbed, the successive weak kings became puppets in the hands of one group or other.  During Shihabuddin Mahmud's reign (1482-Ma), the clash reached its climax. While the king showed his distinct inclination for the Afaqis, the Dakhnis joined hands with the Habshi(Abyssinian) faction. The latter, in 1487, in a-desperate bid attempted to kill the king but failed. It resulted in a large-scale massacre of the Dakhnis which continued for three days. All these factional fights weakened the center and there were continuous rebellion and anarchy. Shihabuddin's death (1518) provided these nobles almost a free hand in their provinces. Finally, Ibrahim Adil Shah of Bijapur was the first to claim his independence in 1537. Thus began the physical disintegration of the Bahmani Sultanate.

Q.  Describe the main features of Nayankara and Ayagar systems under the Vijayanagara rulers. 

A.  The Nayankara System

The nayankara system was an important characteristic of the Vijaynagar political organization. The military chiefs or warriors held the title of nayaka or amaranayaka. Thus, according to scholars, the nayakas of Vijaynagar as warriors holding an office (kara) bestowed on them by the central government on condition of rendering military service. Amaranayankara was a designation. Conferred on a military officer or chief (nayaka) who had under his control a specified number of troops. These nayaks possessed revenue rights over land or territory called amaram (amaramakara or amaramahali). In the Tamil country and also in the Vijaynagar empire, the area of land thus alienated under this tenure was about 3/4th. The obligations and activities of the nayakas were among others, giving gifts to temples, repair, and building of tanks, reclamation of wasteland and collection of dues from temples The Tamil inscription, however, do not refer to dues given to the king or his officials by the nayakas.

The Ayagar System 

The ayagars were village servants or functionaries and constituted of groups of families. These were headmen (reddi or gauda, maniyam), accountant (karnam senabhova) and watchmen (talaiyari). They were given a portion of or plot in a village. Sometimes they had to pay a fixed rent, but generally these plots were manya or tax-free as no regular customary tax was imposed on their agricultural income. In exceptional cases, direct payments in kind were made for services performed by village functionaries. Other village servants who performed essential services and skills for the village community were also paid by assigning plots of land (like washerman and priest). The village servants who provided ordinary goods and services were leather workers whose products included leather bags used in lift-irrigation devices (kiapila or mohte), potter, blacksmith, carpenter, waterman (niranikkar: who looked after the maintenance of irrigation channels and supervised bankers and money-lenders). The distinguishing feature of the ayagar system is that the special allocation of income from land and specific cash payments were for the first time provided to village servants holding a particular office.

Q.  Discuss the salient features of local administration of the Vijayanagara 

A.   The local institutions of the earlier period (e.g., sabha, Nadu and lur). The powers of the territorial assembly (Nadu), as well as the village assemblies (Sabha and ur), were weakened during the time of the later Cholas. During the Vijaynagar period, these institutions did not completely disappear when the nayankara and ayagar systems came into prominence.

Nayankara System - The nayankara system was an important characteristic of the Vijaynagar political organization. The Vijaydagar inscriptions and the later manuscripts refer to the nayakas as territorial magnates with political aspirations which at times conflicted with the aim of the rulers.

The Ayagar System

It has already been pointed out that during the Vijaynagar period, autonomous local institutions, especially in the Tamil country, suffered a set-back. In pre-Vijaynagar days in Karnataka and Andhra local institutions possessed lesser autonomy as compared to Tamil country. During the Vijaynagar period in Karnataka, too local

territorial divisions underwent a change but the ayagar system continued and became widely prevalent throughout the macro-region. It spread in the Tamil country during the 15-16th century as a result of the declining power of Nadu and nattar.

Q.  Write a detailed note on the establishment & consolidation of the Vijayanagar Empire. 

A.      The state of Vijayanagar came into existence in 1336 with Harihara as its king. Soon this state developed into a powerful Vijaynagar empire. The focus of struggle among the local powers was the Krishna Godavari delta, Kaveri basin, the Tungabhadra doab & the Konkan region, the latter known for its fertility and access to high seas. During the 8-13th century, the struggle was between the Rashtrakutas and the Pallavas while the following centuries saw Vijaynagar and Bahmani kingdoms locking horns. The Bahmanis compelled the Vijaynagar rulers to expand laterally westward and eastward across the peninsula from the main center of their power on the Tungabhadra. The Vijaynagar rulers also found it difficult to crush the Bahmani power in Raichur and Tungabhadra doab because of the latter's alliance with the Velamas of Rajakonda in Warangal. These circumstances prevented Vijaynagar from advancing towards the north and forced it to expand laterally eastward and westward across the peninsula and southwards into the Tamil country. Later however this alliance broke up which enabled Vijaynagar to expand at the cost

of Bahmanis.

Early phase - On account of constant clashes, the Vijaynagar boundaries kept on changing. Between 1336-1422, major conflicts took place between Vijaynagar and the Bahmanis with Telugu-Choda chiefs siding with the latter while the Velamas of Rajakonda and the Reddis of Rajahmundry joined hands with Vijaynagar. This tilted the balance largely in favor of the latter. During 1422-46, clash over the annexation of Raichur doab started between the

Vijaynagar and the Bahmani rulers which resulted in Vijaynagar defeat. This greatly exposed the weaknesses of the Vijaynagar arms. It forced its rulers to reorganize the army by enlisting Muslim archers and engaging better quality horses. During this period the entire Kondavidu region was annexed to the Vijaynagar empire. 

Between 1465-1509 again, the Raichur doab became the cockpit of clashes. In the beginning, Vijaynagar had to surrender the western ports, i.e. Goa, Chaul and Dabhol to the Bahmanis. But, around 1490, the internal disintegration of the Bahmani kingdom began with the establishment of Bijapur. Taking advantage of the situation, Vijaynagar succeeded in occupying the Tungabhadra region. 

       The Gajapatis of Orissa were an important power in-the eastern region. They had in their possession areas like Kondavidu, Udayagiri, and Masulipatam. The Vijaynagar rulers succeeded in expelling the Gajapatis as far as the Godavari and occupied Kondavidu, Udayagiri, and Masulipatam. But soon in 1481, Masulipatam was lost to the Bahmanis. 

Krishnadeva Raya, 1509-29

This phase is marked by the achievements of Vijaynagar’s greatest ruler Krishnadeva Raya (1 509-29). During this period; the power of the Bahmanis declined, leading to the emergence of five kingdoms. This helped Krishnadeva Raya greatly in capturing Kovilkonda and Raichw from the Adil Shahis of Bijapur and Gulbarga and Bidar from the Bahrnanis. Krishnadeva Raya also recovered Udayagiri, Kondavidu (south of fiver Krishna), Nalgonda (in Andhra Pradesh) Telingana and Warangal were taken, from the Gajapatis. 

Q.  What role did religion and religious classes play in the political, social and economic life of the Vijaynagar empire.

A.    Religion and religious classes played an important role in the political, social and economic life of the Viiaynagar empire. 

Ritual Kingship

It is generally emphasized that the principle of strict adherence ta dharm was the chief constituent and distinguishing feature of the Vijaynagar state. But very often it was the Hindu rulers against whom the Vijaynagar rulers had to fight, e.g. the Gajapatis of Orissa. The most strategically placed contingents of the Vijaynagar

army were under the charge of Muslim commanders who played an important role in the victory of Vijaynagar against its Hindu riyals. The successful military deeds of the Vijaynagar rulers led them to assume the title of digvijayans. Vijaynagar kingship was symbolic in the sense that the Vijaynagar rulers exercised their control through their overlords over a region beyond the prime center of their authority. This symbolism was manifested through the instrument of religion which was used to ensure loyalty from the people. For example, ritual kingship is best exemplified in the mahanavami festival. This was an annual royal ceremony lasting for nine days between 15 September and 15 October. It culminated in the dusserah festival on the tenth day. Important personages (e.g., military commanders) from the peripheral parts participated in the festival. Through this festival, recognition of the sovereignty of Vijaynagar rulers by peripheral parts of the empire was strengthened. Though the Brahmans participated in the festival, their role was not predominant. The ritual rites of the festival were largely performed by the king himself. 

Political Role of the Brahmans

A distinct feature of the Vijaynagar state was the importance of the Brahmans as political and secular personnel rather than ritual leaders. Most of the Durga dannaiks (in charge of forts) were Brahmans. Literary sources substantiate the theory that fortresses were significant during this period and were placed under the control of the Brahmans, especially of Telugu origins. During this period, the majority of educated Brahmans desired to become government servants as administrators and accountants which offered them good career prospects. The Imperial Secretariat was totally manned by the Brahmans. The Brahmans also played an important role as military commanders in the Vijaynagar army. For example, under Krishnadeva Raya Brahman Timma received economic support as he was an integral part of the political system. Thus Brahmans constructed and commanded fortresses in different parts of the empire for which they were assigned revenue of some crown villages. 

Relationship between Kings, Sects, and Temples -

To establish effective control over the distant Tamil region, the Vijaynagar filer sought the help of the Vaishnava sectarian leaders who hailed from the Tamil country. For legitimizing their power in this region, it was necessary for the rulers, who were aliens in the Tamil region, to establish contacts with the basic Tamil religious organisation-the temples. The relationship between kings, sects, and temples can be explained in terms of four assertions :

 I) Temples were basic for sustaining kingship.

 2) Sectarian leaders were the connecting links between kings and temples.

 3) Though the routine supervision of the temples was done by local sectarian groups, the task of solving disputes concerning temples was in the hands of the king.

4) The intervention of the king in the above matter was administrative, not legislative. During 1350-1650, numerous temples sprang up in south India. Through grants or gifts to the temples in the .form of material resources (a part of the agricultural

produce of specified villages), a particular type of agrarian economy evolved under the Vijaynagar rule.

Q.  Kingdom of Jaunpur

A.    The city of Jaunpur on the banks of river Gomti was founded by Feroz Shah Tughluq during his second Bengal campaign (1359-60). This city became a strong power-base, and it soon evolved as a rival to Delhi for some time. Malik Sarwar, a noble of Feroz Shah Tughluq, took full advantage of the succession tussle among the sons of Feroz and rose to the high position of wazir under Sultan Muhammad Shah (1390-94). The invasion of Timur, which virtually shattered the kingdom of Delhi, gave Malik Sarwar an opportunity to declare his independence in Jaunpur. He extended his hold over Kol (Aligarh), Sambhal and Rapri (in Mainpuri district). He brought the rulers of Jajnagar and Gwalior under him. His son, Ibrahim Shah Sharqi (1401-40) efficiently expanded the territories of the kingdom. He took Kanauj in 1406. He also captured Kalpi (1414) and successfully subdued Ganesh, the ruler of Bengal, in 1414. During the closing years of his reign (1437), he again turned his attention towards Delhi and captured some of its neighboring Parganas. Bahlol Lodi annexed Jaunpur in 1483-84 and placed it under the charge of. Mubarak Nohani.

Q.  Trace the emergence of Malwa as an independent kingdom after the decline of the Delhi Sultanate.

A.  The decline of the Sultanate paved the way for the emergence of the independent kingdom of Malwa. Dilawar Khan Ghori, (d. A.D. 1406), the Tughluq governor of Malwa, assumed independence in the year A.D. 1401-2 and declared himself the king of Malwa. He extended the boundaries of his kingdom by occupying Nimar, Sauyar, Damoh, and Chanderi. Dilawar Khan married his daughter to Ali Sher Khalji, the son of Malik Raja Faruqi of Khandesh, and took his (Faruqi ruler's) daughter for his son Alp Khan. These matrimonial alliances helped him in safeguarding his southeastern frontier. By maintaining friendly relations with Muzaffar Shah of Gujarat, he successfully saved Malwa from attacks, but soon after his death in A.D. 1407, Malwa fell a prey to the imperialistic designs of Muzaffar Gujarati. But in 1408, Hoshang Shah (1406-35) succeeded in regaining control over the Malwa throne. Hoshang Shah had entered into a matrimonial alliance with the Muslim ruler of Kalpi to use the latter as a buffer between Jaunpur-Malwa and Delhi-Malwa.

             Hoshang Shah's successor Muhammad Shah proved incompetent. During his brief reign bf one year, the court of Malwa became a hotbed of intrigues leading to disastrous results. The chaos culminated in his murder (1436) by his noble Mahmud

Khalji. Thus came the end of the Ghorid rule itself. Mahmud Khalji after successfully tackling the nobles and consolidating his internal position looked for further extension of Malwa. 

           Rana Kumbha, Mewar king had promised Umar Khan, son of Hoshang Shah, to install him in place of Mahmud Khalji. In the battle of Sarangpur (1437), Mahmud Khalji was defeated and taken prisoner. Later, Mahmud Khalji took advantage of the confusion that emerged in Mewar after Ranmal's death: he attacked Mewar in 1442. Though Mahmud had occupied Gagraun (1444) and Mandalgarh (1457), Rana Kumbha was able to keep his territory intact and well-defended. This rivalry continued unabated. Ghiyas Shah (1469-1500), the son and successor of Mahmud khalji paid more attention to consolidation rather than conquest. As a result, with the exception of a brief tussle with the Rana of Mewar (1473), the period was of a long peace.

Q.  Discuss the characteristic features of the regional states of North India in the 14th— 15th centuries. Can they be truly called the successor states of the Sultanate?

A.    The foremost feature of the 14-15th-century polity was 'vertical' penetration rather than the 'horizontal' one, i.e. horizontally the area under their control was smaller compared to the Sultanate but within their area of influence they 'vertically '

penetrated deep into the rural areas. Under regional rulers, the maximum area lay outside their effective control; even where they exercised a good measure of control, there, too; they often faced some difficulty. On this basis, we can divide their domain into three kinds:

i) Where land revenue was extracted from the peasants directly through revenue officials, the state's influence and control.was of a high order.

ii) Areas where revenue was collected through local chiefs, the state's control was still good enough.

iii) The states that were satisfied with the tribute only. the degree of control was minimal. This relationship had a direct bearing on regional rulers' relations with the nobles, tributary chiefs or rajas and local aristocracy (the so-called Zamindars, muqaddams, etc.). 

Another important feature was a frequent and fierce struggle between the Muslim-Muslim and Hindu-Hindu rulers rather than between Hindu-Muslim rulers. For example, Gujarat’s traditional enemies were Muslim rulers of Malwa and Jaunpur, there was continuous warfare between Kamata and Ahom rulers; Orissa rulers continuously faced the might of the Vijayanagar rulers and in Rajputana, quarrels took the inter-clan character. They never showed unity even in dire needs. 

NORTH INDIAN KINGDOMS AS SUCCESSOR STATES - Generally, the regional kingdoms are considered as 'successor' states of the Sultan. Some of the founders of the regional kingdoms at one point of time were either governor of the Sultanate or had served under them in some capacity. The founders of the regional kingdoms of Gujarat, Malwa, and Jaunpur respectively, served as governors under the Tughluq Sultans. Besides, Bengal rulers also had direct and continuous links with the Sultanate. But the Rajputana states, though always a prey to the Sultanate onslaught. never accepted the complete hegemony of the Sultans. As and when the opportunity arose they threw off the Sultanate yoke and succeeded in maintaining heir clannish character. Similar was the cast with Sind. Under the Sultanate pressure, the Sind rulers accepted the suzerainty of Iltutmish; Muhammad Tughluq and Feroz Tughluq, but for all practical purposes Sumirah and Sammah rulers ruled independently. Their development was entirely independent of the Sultanate.