FST - 1

1st Part

Q.  Technical development in Feudal society   

A.  Major inventions like the horse collar, the clock, the compass gunpowder, paper, and printing were introduced from China in the feudal society in Europe that were further improved. 

1) The horse collar originated in seventh-century China & reached Europe in the eleventh century. Its use resulted in a manifold increase in the horse's ability to pull loads and work longer. Horses took the place of oxen at the plough and more acres of land could be cultivated. 

2)  The wind-mills and water-mills harnessed nature for performing mechanical work. These mills were used for grinding grains, extracting oil from seeds & drawing water from wells, thus helping agriculture. They were also used for blowing bellows, forging iron or sawing wood.

3)  There were two navigational inventions, the compass, and the sternpost rudder, that had a profound impact on sea voyages in the Middle Ages. With these two inventions, the oceans were thrown open to trade, exploration, and even war for the first time.

4) Other innovations were the lenses and the spectacles. This gave an impetus to the further study of optics. 

5) The distillation of perfumes & oils was already known in Europe through the Arabs. To this was added the distillation of alcohol, which gave rise to the first scientific industry, that of distillers, and laid the foundation of modem chemical industry.

6) Of all the innovations introduced m the West from the East, gunpowder had the greatest effect politically, economically and scientifically. With its use in cannons and handguns, gunpowder enormously altered the balance of power. The making of gunpowder, its explosion, the expulsion of the ball from the cannon and its subsequent flight led to sciences like mechanics and dynamics.

7) Two other technical introductions from the East in the West were the inventions of paper and printing.

Q.  What is the relevance of the statement,' Science and Technology were founded when humans acted to procure food and water'? 

A.   In its earliest stages, human existence revolved around food gathering and hunting. The origin of science started as a man needed to eat and to protect himself from the weather and animals. The man started looking for food in plants and trees and also dug the earth for roots. In this way, they came to know the right kind of food was, and where they could get it from. They also found out which animals were dangerous and which were not, and how to protect themselves. As time passed, the primitive tools and weapons were improved upon and regular methods for making them were established. This specialized knowledge was passed on in the form of tools and techniques from one generation to another. The use of clothing enabled primitive human beings to withstand cold weather. The domestication of animals increased their mobility and also the availability of food. Thus, the primitive society could hope to survive even in adverse conditions. On the basis of it, human society evolved as -

Stone Age

Bronze Age

Iron Age

Stone Age - The major development at this stage was the invention of master tools made up of stones:  the implements to make implements. This created the possibility of producing many different types of implements than could be simply selected or picked up from nature.

Bronze Age - We have seen that the socio-economic needs of growing cities and trade between cities gave rise to many broad areas of quantitative science, such as standardization of measures, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, medicine, etc. The base for the future development of many other areas such as chemistry, algebra, anatomy and physiology, botany, etc. was also laid in this era.

Q.  What are the conditions that determine whether the fruits of science are used for human good or for destructive purposes? 

A.  The use or misuse of science depends on, who the dominating groups in society are and what their interests are. These things are also determined by the particular period of time, in which a society exists and functions. The broad areas of scientific activity in society are decided by its socioeconomic conditions and the prevailing ideological atmosphere. For instance, if, in a society, it is more important to provide for the basic needs of the people, science will be used to first satisfy these needs. But, if a society thrives on the market economy, it will promote scientific activity in areas that increase profits such as making weapons or consumer products like fancy electronic gadgets, etc. The vast majority of common people like us should decide, for what purposes and how science should be used in society. For example, in our society, science should be used not only to make and launch satellites, build nuclear reactors, or send expeditions to Antarctica but also to provide basic necessities, like clean drinking water, food, shelter etc., and to improve the quality of life by providing suitable health-care, better transport, electricity etc.

            The specific areas of social life such as trade, 'markets' and natural resources health, etc. set definite problems for science to solve. Unfortunately, military activity has been one of the major goals for science throughout history. Such goals do not lead to and in fact pervert scientific activity. Most scientists in modern times have taken a position against such a perversion of their work. This stand taken by scientists all over the world against using space to install deadly weapons is an example of this. The fruits of scientific labor can be used for human good or they may be misused. For instance, science in a society based on private profit would lead to the production of goods which can be sold for profit rather than those which are really needed. And if weapons can be a source of profit weapons can be produced rather than the medicine for the ailing. All of us and scientists in particular need to be aware of this.   

Q.  List the socio-economic needs that led to the advances in techniques in the early phase of the growth of cities. 

A.  During the Iron Age, people understood the advantage of the river for food production. They learned that the river water could be systematically used through natural and artificial irrigation thus food production increased substantially. This led to the growth of cities when several villages came together. Further, barter trade led to some places being identified as meeting places for displaying goods and exchanging grain for cloth or spices or shopping for better tools and implements made by expert artisans.

           The growth of cities led to the rise of an administrative class who could organize and coordinate production and exchange but did not take part in it directly. A large number of people in cities started getting involved in other means of production. They could produce other useful goods and even excel in music or dance. The agricultural surplus could be used to support craftsmen who made the agricultural implements and storage vessels, masons who built shelters, wheel-wrights who made pottery, and others who made carts. There were still others who worked as administrators & priests, and who were not directly involved in the process of production. These groups of people came to live in the cities. The population of cities used to be supported by agriculture in the neighboring as well as distant villages. This resulted in a division between villages and cities. Between those who produced and those who supported production through work of other kinds; those who worked with their hands. and administrators or priests who mainly used their mental skills. This division had a very definite effect on the development of techniques and science. For the first time, specialization of occupations and professions had taken place. As there was enough food available. society could support even those who did not produce. Such people had the leisure to think to improve their crafts to create art and beauty. The surplus also had to be transported by land, rive; the land-sea in exchange for other

necessities of life and even luxury goods. This provided the tremendous impetus for the development of transport, such as rafts, boats and small ships, which brought about new dimensions of trade, cultural contact, and exchange of techniques and science among different societies.

Q.  Compare the state of science and technology during renaissance with that of the post-renaissance period in Europe.   A.  Science and Technology During Renaissance (1440- 1540)

Art-. The visual arts, such as painting and sculpture had a profound influence on the development of science. For instance, painters were required to have a thorough knowledge of geometry, so that they could represent three-dimensional figures in two dimensions. It laid the foundation of geology and natural history. The anatomy of human beings was also studied in much detail. The professions of artists, architects and engineers were not separated in the Renaissance. Artists were also civil and military engineers. 

Medicine and Technology - The human body was dissected, explored, measured and explained as an enormously complex machine. The new anatomy, physiology, and pathology were founded on direct observation and experiment.

Metals - In technology, the greatest advances of the Renaissance were in the fields of mining, metallurgy, and chemistry. With growing capitalist production, mining became a large scale operation. As mines grew deeper, pumping and hauling devices became essential. This led to a new interest in mechanical and hydraulic principles. The smelting of metals like iron, copper, zinc, bismuth, cobalt, etc., their handling and separation led to a general theory of chemistry involving oxidation and reduction, distillation and amalgamation. For the first time, metallic compounds were introduced into medicine. Other chemical substances such as alum and clay were studied to improve cloth and leather industries or to make fine pottery.

Navigation and Astronomy - Trade on land and over the seas was being taken up on a big scale. The adventure, the general excitement and ultimately, the great profitability of these voyages created great enthusiasm for building new ships and instruments for navigation. Interest in astronomy was strongly revived.

Post renaissance period in Europe (1540 - 1760)-

The development of capitalism as a leading method of production was accompanied by the birth of a new method of natural science, that of experiment and observation. This period was of steady advance without any revolutionary inventions. The increasing demand for iron led to the development of new blast furnaces. The shortage of wood for iron-smelting led to the widespread use of coal. From then on. the center of the industry was to move towards the coalfields. 

          By collecting a series of exact observations on the positions of stars and planets with specially made apparatus Kepler gave laws of planetary motion. The telescope, invented around this time, proved to be the greatest scientific instrument of this Period and revolutionized in science. Galileo was able to see that the moon was not a perfect round and smooth body but it had ridges and valleys. Galileo and Kepler could formulate mathematical descriptions of the motion of bodies because they were masters of the new mathematics that had grown during the Renaissance. Logarithm was introduced by Napier (1550-1617) which greatly simplified astronomical calculations. There were other important developments in science in this period. Magnetism was experimentally studied for the first time. Another important development was William Harvey's (1578-1657) discovery of the circulation of blood in the human body.

Q.  State the reasons why there were such few developments in science in British India.                           

A.     The British government was not interested in developing science and technology as it wanted India to remain backward and thus remained subdued. It made the investment in botanical, geological and geographical surveys from which they hoped to get direct and substantial economic and military advantages. Medical and zoological sciences did not hold such promise and, thus, they were neglected. Research in physics or chemistry was simply out of the question because these subjects were related to industrial development which the British did not want to encourage. India was considered to be only a source of raw materials and a wonderful market for all sorts of articles manufactured in Britain, from needles, nibs, and pencils to shoes, textiles, and medicines. The British government wanted India to serve a dual purpose, a market for its finished goods and a colony to supply cheap raw materials like cotton, indigo, silk, etc for its industries.

             In the educational scheme, science was never given a high priority. The charter of 1813 called for 'the introduction and promotion of knowledge of science among the inhabitants of British India'. But it remained a pious wish. In 1835, Macaulay succeeded in making a foreign language English the medium of instruction. Also, his personal distaste for science led to a curriculum that was purely literary. The entry of science in schools was thus delayed. A few medical and engineering institutions were opened but they were meant largely to supply assistants to British trained doctors and engineers. Ancient universities in India were leading centers of learning in their time and attracted scholars from other countries. So were the famous centers of Islamic learning in the medieval period in India. But these traditions did not survive.

Q.  State the developments that helped the advances of science and technology during the Renaissance.        

A.    The Renaissance was a revolutionary movement. It marked a definite and deliberate break with the past. It swept away the medieval forms of economy, of building, of art and thought. These were replaced by a new culture, capitalist in its economy, classical in its art and literature, and scientific in its approach to Nature. The feudal system dominated by the lords and the Church had given way to nation-states, where the kings or princes provided patronage to the new scientists. The technicians and artists were no longer so despised as they had been in medieval times. The practical arts of weaving, pottery, spinning, glass making, mining, metal-working, etc. became respectable. Initially, this enhanced the status of craftsmen. The Renaissance also re-established the link between the traditions of the craftsmen and those of the scholars. With this coming together of the doers and the thinkers in the changed economic situation, the stage was set for rapid growth in science. 

Q.  "Hypotheses are accepted as 'laws' only if they are supported by a great deal of experimental evidence". Explain by giving a suitable example.      

A. A hypothesis is a statement put forward on the basis of reasoning about the things that are being studied. It is an attempt to answer questions that are posed. Based on previous knowledge or observations, a speculative framework or a hypothesis is generally built to answer the question 'why'. Experiments are set up to prove the first hypothesis. or to find under what conditions the idea is valid. This leads to the formulation of more reliable laws and theories which, of course, are not considered unchangeable. Each law is valid within certain boundaries or conditions. The application of laws to real-life brings out these limitations and leads to new hypotheses, further experiments, and better laws. One of the examples is -

# why are bees attracted to flowers?

Hypothesis - 

Experiment1 - A glass jar with colorful artificial flowers and bees.

Exp 2 - A glass jar with colorful natural flowers and bees.

Observation 1. - Bees r attracted to artificial colorful flowers but fly away quickly

Observation 2. - Bees r attracted to natural colourful flowers and remain there long.

Result - Bees r attracted to flowers for both color and nectar.

Q.  What is a hypothesis? Giving suitable examples, describe the inductive and deductive logic to frame a hypothesis.     
A. A hypothesis is a statement, put forward on the basis of reasoning, about the things that are being studied. It is an attempt to answer questions that are posed. A hypothesis is formulated by taking into account all the observations that are known about the phenomenon under investigation. It tries to explain the known or predict the unknown but possible features of the phenomenon. We may use both inductive and deductive logic to frame a hypothesis.
Inductive logic - If we have direct evidence about only a part of The Method of Science and the phenomenon, or some objects or situations and, if on that basis, we infer about the properties, of Scientific Knowledge behavior and other features of the whole phenomenon, or the entire group of objects and situations, then we are using inductive logic. For example, if we know that the population of a country has doubled in a given period of time, we may use induction to hypothesize that it will double again in the same time. Again, if we study the shadows of simple objects like triangles, rectangles, and circles cast on a wall due to light from a small bulb, we may conclude that light travels in a straight line. Inductive logic can mislead also, for example, to infer that all roses are red if you happen to see only red roses in a garden is illogical. Conclusions shouldn’t be drawn on the basis of insufficient evidence, and the conclusions have to be further tested for their reliability.
Deductive logic - may be considered as the opposite of induction. Here the reasoning is more direct. Examples of deduction are: roses can be of any color, hence some roses can be red. All birds have wings; therefore, a sparrow, which is a bird, will have wings. Deductive logic is extensively used in chemistry. For example, if a group of chemical salts exhibits some properties or behavior, we can safely say that any salt belonging to this group will exhibit the same property or behavior. You could say that deduction may also mislead, because in the examples how do we know that a sparrow is a bird, or a salt belongs to that group of salts. These facts would have to be established before such deductions can be accepted.
                The hypotheses arrived at from both kinds of reasoning have to be tested before they are accepted. A major operation in the method of science is that of setting up experiments specifically designed to test the hypotheses.