EHI - 4

14th Part

Q.  Mahdavi Movement                                               

A.  Syed Mohammad of Jaunpur proclaimed himself Mahdi at Mecca. After returning to India he managed to win a few converts some of whom belonged to the ulema group. The Mahdis enjoined worship of God according to the strict laws of Shariat: God, His Prophet, and His Book were the only guides. The Mahdavis lived in Daeras where they practiced the laws of the Shariat. For the Mahdavis, the ordinance of the Quran was divided into two groups: commandments explained by the last of the Prophets associated with the Shariat and commandments of the last of the walis, i.e., Mahdi. The latter comprised the following: Renunciation of the world, company of the truthful, seclusion from mankind, resignation to the Divine will, quest of the vision of God, distribution of one-tenth of the income, constant Zikr and migration (hijrat). The Mahdavis abjured politics. The Daeras attracted the masses because of the piety and simplicity of the Mahdavis. They were established in the North as well as South i.e. Gujarat. Chandigarh, Ahmednagar, Bayana, etc..

Q.  Gaudia Vaishnavism                                               

A.  The Gaudia Vaishnav movement and the Chaitanya movement (neo-Vaishnav movement) derived its inspiration from the life and teachings of Chaitanya. had a tremendous impact on the social, religious and cultural life of the people of Assam, Bengal, and Orissa. The people were not only influenced by his message but began to regard him as an incarnation of God. In the pre-Chaitanya or Gaudia vaishnav, Bengal and Orissa, oppression of lower castes by the Brahmins were rampant. Moral decadence was the order of the day. It was in the midst of social and religious conservatism and moral decadence that the Chaitanya movement dawned and brought far-reaching changes. Chaitanya, the founder of the movement, himself remained free from all sorts of social and religious conservatism. Although it was not a social reform movement, it rejected caste barriers. Although a Brahmin, Chaitanya had no respect for the idea of the superiority of Brahmins. He openly violated caste rules and used to mix up with the members of the low occupational castes. The Neo-Vaishnavite movement found its adherents in such disparate social groups- untouchables to scholars.

Q.  Sikhism                                                       

A.  The teachings and philosophy of Guru Nanak constitute an important component of Indian philosophy and thought. His philosophy comprised three basic elements: a leading charismatic personality (the Guru), ideology (Shabad) and organization (Sangat). Nanak evaluated and criticized the prevailing religious beliefs and attempted to establish a true religion that could lead to salvation. He repudiated idol worship and did not favor pilgrimage nor accepted the theory of incarnation. He condemned formalism and ritualism. He believed in the unity of God and laid emphasis on having a true Guru for revelation. He advised people to follow the principles of conduct and worship: sach (truth), halal (lawful earning), Khair (wishing well' of others), niyat (right intention) and service of the lord. Nanak denounced the caste system and the inequality which is perpetrated. He said that caste and honor should be judged by the acts or deeds of the individuals. He believed in the Universal brotherhood of man and equality of men and women. He laid stress on concepts like justice, righteousness, and liberty. Nanak's verses mainly consist of two basic concepts: Sach (truth) and Nam (Name). Sabad (the word), Guru (the divine precept) and Hukam (the divine order) form the basis of divine self-expression. He laid emphasis on kirtan and Satsang. He introduced community lunch (langar). 

Q.  Sufi philosophy                                               

A.  Sufism sought to achieve the inner realization of divine unity by arousing intuitive and spiritual faculties. Rejecting rational arguments, the Sufis advocated contemplation and meditation. Sufism is divided into four phases. The first began with the Prophet Muhammad and his companions and extended to the time of Junaid of Baghdad. The Sufis during this period exclusively devoted themselves to prayer (namaz), fasting (rozah) and invoking God's names (zikr). During Junaid's time, the Sufis lived in a state of continued meditation and contemplation. The emotional effect of sama (religious music) upon the Sufis increased during this phase. During the third phase, the emphasis was laid upon the state of ecstasy which led to spiritual telepathy. In contemplating the union of temporal and eternal, their individuality dissolved and the Sufis even ignored their regular prayers and fasting, etc. In the fourth phase, the Sufis discovered the theory of the five stages of descent from the Necessary Being (wajib-ul-wujud).

                                       

Q.  What were the various methods used by historians to estimate India's population in the 17th century?                           

A.  On the Basis of the Extent. of Cultivated Area -

Moreland attempt to estimate the population with the help of the data of the Ain-i Akbari. He tried to determine the population of Northern India on the basis of the figures given in the Ain. This work gives figures for arazi (measured area) which he took to represent the gross cropped area. Comparing the arazi with

the gross cultivation at the beginning of this century and assuming a constant correspondence between the extent of cultivation and the size of the population right through the intervening period, he concluded that from "Multan to Monghyr" there were 30 to 40 million people at the end of the 16th century.

Applying Civilian: Soldier Ratio

For the Deccan and South India, Moreland took as the basis of his calculations the military strength of the Vijaynagar Empire and Deccan Sultanates. Taking a rather arbitrary ratio of 1:30 between the soldiers and civilian population, he estimated the population of the reign at 30 million. Allowing for other territories lying within the pre-1947 limits of India but not covered by his two basic assumptions, he put the population of Akbar's Empire in 1600 at 60 million, and of India as a whole at 100 million.

             Moreland's basic assumptions (and therefore his figures) are questionable. For estimating the population of Northern India he makes the assumption that (a) measurement was made of the cultivated land only, and (b) it was carried out by the Mughal administration to completion in all localities for which any figures are offered. It has been shown on the basis of textual as well as statistical evidence that the arazi of the A'in was area measured for revenue purposes which included, besides the cultivated area current, fallows and some cultivable and uncultivable waste. Moreover, measurement by no means was completed everywhere. Thus, Moreland's estimate of the population of Northern India loses much of its credibility. It.is weaker still for Deccan and South India. The army: civilian ratio is not only arbitrary but undependable; the comparison with the pre-World War I France and Germany seem, in particular, to be quite inept, since the military: civilian ratios maintainable in modern states and economies are so variable. Any of these can by no stretch of the imagination be used to set limits for the range of military: civilian ratios in pre-modern regimes in the tropical zones. This is apart from the fact that Moreland's count of the number of the troop in the Deccan kingdoms was based on very general statements by European travelers.

              Making allowance for cultivable and uncultivable waste included in the arazi and establishing the extent of measurement in various parts of the Mughal Empire, Shireen Moosvi has concluded that the area under cultivation in Mughal Empire in 1601 was about 55 percent of the cultivated area in the corresponding region in 1909-10. This estimate receives further reinforcement from the extent of cultivation worked out by Ifran Habib from a detailed analysis and comparison of the number and size of villages in various regions of the Empire in the 17th century and in 1881. Irfan Habib suggests that the area under plough in the 17th century was more than one-half but less than two-thirds of the ploughed area in 1900.

        On the basis of the above-mentioned analysis, Shireen Moosvi makes the following three assumptions:

i) The total cultivation in 1601 was 50 to 55 percent of what it was during the first

decade of the present century.

ii) The urban population was 15 percent of the total and, thus, the rural population was 85 percent of the total population. 

iii) The average agricultural holding in 1601 was 107 percent larger than in 1901.

             She gives an estimate of the population of India in the 17th century as between 140 and 150 million.

Q.  Examine the attitude of the Mughal rulers towards religion and religious communities.                                                      

Q.  Give a brief account of Aurangzeb's attitude towards religion in state policies.

Q.  Examine Akbar's attitude towards religion and religious communities.   

A.  Akbar - 

         Akbar's attitude towards religion and religious communities is generally evaluated on the basis of the measures which he took between 1560-65 and which primarily affected the non-Muslim population of the Empire. During this period the Emperor established matrimonial relations with the Rajputs, abolished the pilgrimage tax, prohibited the conversion of prisoners of war to Islam and abolished jiziya. In his personal beliefs, however, Akbar was a devoted Muslim and showed deep respect to the ulema and bestowed upon this group abundant favors.

         A change, however, appears in his attitude after 1565. A document was signed by his wakil Munim Khan (August-September 1566) which refers to the order regarding the collection of jiziya in the vicinity of Agra. In 1568, Akbar issued the famous Fathnama of Chittor which is full of terms and idioms that can be termed as the bigoted declaration. He declares his war against the Rajputs as jihad, takes pride in destroying temples and in killing the kafirs. In Sharaif-i Usmani Akbar ordered Qazi Abdul Samad of Bilgram to check the Hindus from practicing idol-worship there. In 1575, according to Badauni, Akbar reimposed jiziya though it did not work. 

       Religion, thus, was not the main concern of the Mughal Emperor. The significant issue before Akbar was to subdue the local chieftains. Religion was used only as a tool to attain political goals. When this strategy did not yield substantial gains, Akbar dropped it. 

            Another important aspect during Akbar reign was the establishment of Ibadat khana (in 1575). It was established with the aim to have a free discussion on various aspects of Islamic theology. In the beginning, only the Sunnis were permitted to take part in the discussions. But, from September 1578, the Emperor opened the gates of Ibadat khana to the Sufis, Shi'as, Brahmins, Jains, Christians, Jews, Parsis, etc. The discussions at Ibadat Khana proved to be a turning point as they convinced Akbar that the essence of faith lay in "internal conviction" based on 'reason'. Akbar made an attempt by proclaiming himself mujtahid & declaring himself as Imam-Adil, to claim the right to interpret all legal questions on which there existed a difference of opinion among the ulema. Thus, Akbar's Tauhid-i Ilahi is another significant measure of this reign.

Jahangir

Jahangir, on the whole, made no departure from his father's liberal attitude. He was more orthodox than his father and less than his son Khurram. Although, he took harsh steps against the Sikhs, Jains, and Sunnis the victims of his wrath were only individuals and not the religious groups perse. On the other hand, Jahangir visited Jadrup Gosain three times and discussed with him Hindu philosophy.

          It is noteworthy that the percentage of the Hindu mansabdars did not decrease during Jahangir's reign. He never launched a policy of the destruction of Hindu places of worship. He also did not reimpose jiziya, nor believed in forcible conversion to Islam.

Shah Jahan

By the time Shah Jahan ascended the throne in 1627 a change in the climate of tolerance and liberalism seemed to have set in. Islamic precepts now began to exercise some control over the affairs of the state as was evident from a change in the practice of paying salute to the emperor. Akbar had introduced in his court the practice of sijda or prostration, but Shah Jahan abolished it since this form of

veneration was deemed fit for the Almighty. seventy-six temples in the region of Banaras were demolished at the order of the Emperor. The argument was that "new idol houses" (taza sanamkbana) could not be constructed. However, the old ones built before Shah Jahan's accession were left untouched. Shah Jahan did not impose jiziya on the non-Muslims. Nor did the number of the Hindu mansabdars fall

below the number under his predecessors.

Aurangzeb

Some of the measures taken by him which shows his attitude towards other religion-

i) Aurangzeb forbade the kalima (Islamic confession of faith) from being stamped on his coins lest the holy words might be desecrated underfoot or defiled by the non-believers.

ii) Nauroz (the New Year's Day of the Zoroastrian calendar) celebrations going on since his predecessor's times were abolished.

iii) Old mosques, etc, neglected earlier, were ordered to be repaired, and imams and muezzins, etc. were appointed on a regular salary.

iv) A Censor of Morals (Muhktasib) was appointed "to enforce the Prophet's Laws and put down the practices forbidden by Him" (such as drinking spirits, use of bhang, gambling, and commercial sex).

v) The ceremony of weighing the Emperor against gold and silver on his two birthdays (i.e. according to the lunar and solar calendars) was stopped. 

vi) In 1665, the Emperor instructed the governor of Gujarat that Diwali and Holi should be celebrated outside the bazaars of the city of Ahmedabad and its Parganas. The reason given for the partial ban of Holi was that Hindus "open their mouths in obscene speech and kindle the Holi bonfire in chaklas and bazar, throwing into the fire the faggot of all people that they can seize by force and theft".

vii) The practice of jharokha darshan was discontinued after the eleventh year of his reign. The Emperor took it to be unIslamic because the groups of the darshans regarded their sovereign as their earthly divinity (and therefore they did not eat anything before they had the darshan of the Emperor).

viii) Aurangzeb forbade the court musicians to perform before him "as he had no liking for pleasure, and his application to business left him no time for amusement. Gradually music was totally forbidden at court". However, the musicians were given a pension. On the other hand, qaubat (the royal band) was retained. 

              Aurangzeb ordered the demolition of Hindu temples which were newly constructed. He also instructed that old temples were not to be repaired. The next major measure was the re-imposition of jiziya in 1679 which was abolished by Akbar long ago. He also desecrated many temples or converted them to mosques. He ordered (in 1655) asking the Hindus to pay a 5% customs duty on goods, as against 2 and 1.5% by the Muslim merchants. Another farman was issued in 1671 to the effect that the revenue collectors of the khalisa land must be Muslims. However, Aurangzeb did not reduce the percentage of Hindus in the mansab system; rather it was higher compared to his predecessors. Many Hindus held high posts, and, two were appointed governors.