EHI-02

2nd Part

Block 3 (Unit 10) 

Q. Discuss in about ten lines the main characteristics of the OCP culture.

A.  Ochre Coloured Pottery culture (OCP culture) was discovered during excavations in twin districts of Bisauli (Badaun district) and Rajpur Parsu (Bijnor district)UP. These were copper hoard sites. This pottery is made of medium grained clay, underfired & has a wash of ochre (which has a tendency to rub off) ranging from orange to red. Hence, those sites associated with this ware were named Ochre Coloured Pottery culture (OCP culture).

Ochre Coloured Pottery sites are generally located on river banks. These sites are small in size & the mounds have a low height at many of the sites(e.g. Bahadarabad, Bisauli, Rajpur Parsu, Saipai). This indicates a relatively short duration of these settlements. The distance between settlements varies from 5 km to 8 km. At some of the OCP sites (e.g. Ambkheri, Baheria, Bahadarabad, Jhinjhana, Lal Qila, Saipai) excavations have revealed no signs of regular habitation. The material remains of OCP culture are mostly in the form of pottery. These consist of jars (including storage jars), bowls, ring-footed bowls, flasks, handled pots, miniature pots, basins spouts, etc. Not much evidence is available regarding structures. From the evidence recorded at La1 Qila, which is scanty, it is known that

floors were made of rammed earth. The structures consisted of wattle and daub houses. This is suggested on the basis of burnt mud plaster and mud clods with reed and bamboo impressions being found at Lal Qila. Archaeobotanical remains recovered and related to this culture indicate

that rice, barley, gram, and Kesari were grown. On the basis of similarity in pottery types, some scholars believe that the OCP represented a degenerated form of the late Harappan pottery. OCP culture depending on dating existed between 2000 BC - 1500BC

Q. What are the characteristic features of BRW? Discuss in about ten lines the difference of the BRW found in. various regions.

A. Excavations at Atranjikhera in the early 1960s revealed a distinct horizon, sandwiched between OCP and PGW levels. This horizon has characteristic pottery called Black and Red Ware (BRW). A similar stratigraphic sequence has been discovered in the 1970s at Jodhpur and Noh in Rajasthan.

The characteristic features of this pottery are the black color inside and near the rim on the outside, and red color, over the rest of the body. This color combination, it is believed, has been produced by inverted firing. The pottery is mostly wheel turned, though some pots are also handmade. It is made of fine clay and has a fine fabric with thin walls. Black and Red Ware pottery with paintings have

also been found at sites in Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, and West Bengal. But in the BRW of the doab area, there is an absence of paintings. There are differences in the shape and designs of the BRW potteries found in different areas some of them are -

# The important feature of doab BRW (also of that at Noh) is its plain surface, devoid of any paintings. The BRW found at Gilund and Ahar, on the other hand, is painted in white on the black surface.

# There are also typological differences. The painted BRW from Ahar has carinated concave sides, and the fabric is coarse. The plain BRW of the doab has no carination, and the fabric is fine.

# The dish with a featureless rim and concave sides present in large numbers in the BRW of the doab is absent at Ahar and Gilund.

# Bowls with spouts and dish-on-stand present at Ahar and Gilund have not been found in the doab sites.

It also covers a vast time span from 2400 B.C. to the early centuries of the Christian era.

Q. Discuss PAINTED GREY WARE CULTURE (PGW)

A.  Painted Grey Ware (PGW) was discovered firstly at Ahichchhatra in 1946, since then a huge number of sites have been brought to light in different parts of north India. The concentration of PGW sites is in the Indo-Gangetic divide (Haryana), Sutlej basin and the upper Ganga plains. Settlements are located along river banks. The average distance from one side to the other is about 10 km. to 12 km. though in some cases it is also 5 km. The settlements at these sites are mostly small villages (1 to 4 hectares)

i) Pottery: Pottery is wheal made, out of well-levigated clay and has a thin core:

# It has a smooth surface, grey to ash-grey in color.

# It is painted in black and sometimes in a deep chocolate color on the outer as well as the inner surface.

# It has nearly 42 designs and the most common types are bowls and dishes

ii) Structures: The houses and other structures were of wattle and daub. This is indicated by the occurrence of patches of burnt earth, mud bricks, burnt bricks, mud platforms, and mud plaster pieces, with reed and bamboo impressions.

iii) Other Objects: A variety of objects made out of copper, iron, glass, and bone were found in excavations. These consist of axes, chisels, fish hooks and arrowheads. Spearheads are made only of iron.

iv) Crops and Animal Remains: Evidence of cultivated crops is available only at Hastinapura and Atranjikhera. At the former site, remains of only rice were found and the latter has yielded the remains of wheat and barley. Bones of horse, cattle, pig, goat, and deer have been found.

v) Trade Practices and Linkages: Beads made of a variety of semi-precious stones (like agate, jasper, carnelian, chalcedony, lapis lazuli) are found at different PGW sites in the doab. None of these stones, as raw material, are available in the doab. These items could have been obtained by trade. Agate and chalcedony are found in Kashmir, Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh whereas lapis lazuli is to be found in Badakshan province in Afghanistan. Thus, the people inhabiting the PGW sites must have obtained these stones through trade or exchange with these Regions.

Q. Describe NBP ware culture. 

A. This ware was first discovered at Taxila in 1930, since then 1500 sites have been discovered in different parts. Because of its black color and fine luster, the culture is known as Northern Black Polished Ware Culture. The excavations have revealed that:

# at several sites NBP Ware culture succeeded PGW levels, and

# at some sites NBP succeeded BRW, and NBP is succeeded by Red Slipped Ware.

There are two phases of NBP ware culture -

Phase 1 - This is the first phase characterized by a predominance of NBP Ware and the presence of shreds of BRW and PGW, though in meager quantities. In this phase, there is an absence of punch-marked coins and burnt brick structures, which signify a higher level of development.

Phase 2 - Pottery specimens belonging to BRW and PGW are not found in this phase. NBP Ware is of poor quality (thicker in fabric) and is found in smaller numbers. A coarse grey ware comes into greater use. Punch marked coins and burnt bricks make their first appearance. Taking into account the similarities between NBP & PGW some scholars have suggested that the former is a refined form of the latter.

Structures - Excavations revealed that during this period building activities began on a large scale and that cities began to emerge. Houses were made of burnt bricks, and the use of timber in house construction is evidenced, the roofs of houses were covered with tiles. The rooms were square as well as rectangular. Also, the elaborate drainage system was discovered. The fortifications signify defensive measures against invasion and speak of political tensions.

Pottery - The most characteristic feature of NBP Ware is its glossy surface. It is turned on a fast wheel and is made of well-levigated clay. NBP was a luxury ware not Available to everybody and suggests to us that in the society in which NBP Ware was used society was divided into unequal groups.

Other Objects - Several kinds of tools, weapons, ornaments and other objects made of copper, iron, gold, silver, stone, glass and bone have been recovered from NBP Ware sites. Copper and Iron objects are found in abundance during this period. Silver punch-marked coins have been found from the middle phase of NBP culture. These indicate a possible shift from the barter system to a system of exchange of goods through metallic currency.

Ornaments -

Beads made of semi-precious stones, glass, clay, copper shell, and bone are most commonly found. The ornament excavated indicates -

# use of ornaments in that society

# existence of specialized craftsmen to make them

# level of technology for making them, and

# trade or exchange activities with other regions to procure various semi-precious Stones.

Terracotta Figurines

These comprise human and animal figurines and miscellaneous objects. The miscellaneous terracotta objects are toy carts, simple & animal-headed gamesman; discs, balls, fleshrubbers and potter's stamps. At a later stage of this culture are found seals and sealings bearing inscriptions in Brahmi script.

Subsistence Economy and Trade

Archaeobotanical remains indicate that rice, wheat, barley, millet, pea, and black gram were cultivated. And the animal remains found from some of the sites suggest dependence on cattle, sheep, goat, pig, and fish. The diverse variety of beads, found to be common at several sites, Gives evidence of trade. This indicates trade links existed between Taxila, Hastinapura, Ahichchhara, Sravasti, and Kausambi during Ca. 600 B.C. to 200 B.C. Buddhist texts also testifies about trade guilds, and the caravans of camels, horses, mules, oxen, and buffaloes. Between the 6th and 3rd centuries B.C. there was trade between India and countries to the west. The main items of export were textiles, spices. Arthasastra (Book-II) tells the state not only exercised control over trade but also had a monopoly over industries like gold, copper, iron, lead, tin, silver, diamond, gems and precious stones.

Q. What are the characteristics of Malwa settlements?

A.  Excavations at Inamgaon revealed that settlements were quite large and planning was adopted in the laying out of the settlement. Houses were rectangular and were aligned in a roughly east-west orientation. Though these houses were built close to each other, they had an intervening space of about I-2m in between which might have served as a lane. Inside the house was a large oval fire pit with raised sides for keeping the fire under control. The houses were provided with one or two mouthed challahs in the kitchen. The grain was stored in deep pit silos. Malwa Culture settlements have a fortified mud wall with stone rubble bastions and ditch around the habitation.

Q. Discuss in about five lines the characteristics of Daimabad Hoard. 

A.  It was a chance discovery, four objects on the top of the mound (below which is a deposit, 1.2m thick belonging to the Jorwe period) came to light at Daimabad. These are massive, all solid cast, and weigh over 60 kg:

i) Elephant: This is the heaviest (25 cm in height X 27 cm in length), and stands on a cast copper platform with four brackets beneath, pierced, to take axles.

ii) Rhinoceros: This is slightly smaller, and also stands on a casting platform. The brackets contain two solid copper axles with cast wheels attached. This rhinoceros recalls the one inscribed on the Indus seals.

ii) Two-Wheeled Chariot with a Rider: The chariot is attached by a long pole to the yoked oxen which stands on two cast copper strips, but there are no brackets for wheels. The chariot has two uprights supporting a cross-bar behind which the rider stands. This piece has no parallels.

iv) Buffalo: This also has wheels and axle in position. This has some parallels in the figures of buffalo5 in both terracotta and case copper or bronze found from Mohenjodaro. The copper of the Daimabad hoard compares with that of other copper objects found in excavations, and spectrometric analysis of this metal has revealed that it is unalloyed by tin or other metals.

Unit 11

Q. Write ten lines on the cultural phases of the early farming communities in South India.

A.  There were 3 phases of the growth of the early farming communities in south India.

Phase I: The earliest settlements of these farming communities represent this phase. These were made on tops of granitoid hills, or on leveled terraces on hillsides, or in the valleys between two or more hills. The material culture consists of a polished stone axe industry, blade industry, and handmade pottery. In pottery, grey or buff-brown ware is most common. Maski and Brahmagiri have all revealed the first phase of settlements of these agro-pastoral communities. This phase can be ascribed

between 2500-1800 B.C. on the basis of radiocarbon dates.

Phase II: The settlement pattern of Phase-I continues without any change settlements were still made on top of granitic hills, or on leveled surfaces on the hillsides. Nonetheless, there are some important developments. The settlements had circular hutments of wattle and daub on wooden frames with mud floors. In this phase, new pottery types like the perforated and spouted vessels appeared. The discovery of such pottery types reveals contacts with regions in the north. The polished stone axe and blade industries proliferated in this phase. Copper and bronze objects were also discovered for the first time and their numbers increased towards the end of this phase. The available radiocarbon dates for this phase suggest a timespan covering 1800-1500 B.C.

Phase III: The important development in this phase is the increase in the number of copper and bronze tools. The stone axe and blade industries continue. In pottery a new grey and buff ware with a harder surface become common. This phase can be ascribed to the period 1400-1050 B.C.

Q. Can the economy of the farming communities of South India be characterized as Agro-pastoral?

A.  The economy of these communities was a combination of agriculture and & animal husbandry (cattle predominantly and sheep/goat to some extent), it can be termed agro-pastoral. The available archaeobotanical evidence indicates that millets and pulses were the main cultivated crops. Excavations yielded remains that belong to both domesticated and wild species. The domesticated species consist of cattle, buffalo, sheep, goats, pigs, dogs, and fowl. Cattle predominate at the majority of the sites indicating its importance in the economy of these communities.

Q. What did the ash mounds discovered at various sites signify?

A.  The ash mounds were originally the sites for cattle pens where dung accumulated; they were created because of the burning of cow dung; and that this burning was perhaps a part of the rituals performed by the neolithic communities.

Q. Write in about 100 words about the Iron Age in South India.

A.  On the basis of objects recovered during excavations, the use of iron in South India began sometime around 1100 B.C. The iron objects were recovered from the burial pits in south India. Most of the information about the iron age in south India comes from the excavations of the megalithic graves. The dead were buried with an array of iron objects: flat iron axes often with crossed iron bands for hafting, different types of flanged spade, hoe, and a spud or pickaxe, sickles, bill hooks,

wedges, crowbars, spears, knives, chisels or adzes, iron tripods, pot rests, saucers, hooklamps, many armed lam-pendants, daggers, swords (some with ornamental bronze hilts), arrowheads and spearheads with hollow sockets, ceremonial scalloped axes, iron tridents, etc.

Q. Write five lines on the economy of the South Indian Megalith builders.

A. Some scholars are of the opinion that people belonging to this place were proficient in tracing iron ore deposits and in the manufacture of a variety of iron objects. They were trading in these items and gradually took to settled life. The settlements found near the megalithic complexes have very thin debris of occupation indicating that these people were living in one area for a very short time. With the knowledge of iron, they could colonize new areas. Thus, some of the population was nomadic and some settlements might indicate the colonization of new areas.

Unit 12

Q. What are the four Vedas? Which Veda belongs specifically to the Early Vedic Period. 

A. Rig, Sama, Yajur, Atharva. Rigveda

Q. Is the theory of the Aryan invasion acceptable in the light of the archaeological excavations? Give the arguments of the Archaeologists in 100 words.

A.  The archaeological sources do not support the theory of Aryan invasion or migration. Archaeological evidence relating to the period between the second millennium B.C. and the first millennium B.C. has thus helped us modify existing views regarding the Vedic 'Aryans' in several ways. First, there is no substantial proof in archaeology that there was large-scale migration of people from central or western Asia into the Indian subcontinent around 1500 B.C. Second archaeologically there is no proof that the Aryans destroyed the Harappan civilization and laid the foundation of a new Indian civilization. The following points suggested by archaeological excavations at various sites prove Aryan invasion theory a misconception -

i) Earlier scholars believed that the Indo-Aryans caused the downfall of the Harappan civilization by destroying the Harappan towns and cities. They quoted Rigvedic hymns which invoke Indra to destroy the dwellers of the forts. But archaeological evidence has shown that the decline of the Harappan civilization was not caused by any large-scale destruction brought about by an alien invading Group but it was a long gradual process.

ii) Attempts to identify the makers of Painted Grey Ware with the Aryans also do not receive strong support from archaeological evidence. If the PGW cultures related to the Aryans, then keeping the theory of invasion in mind, we should have found this pottery type in the areas of Bahawalpur and Punjab i.e. along the route taken by the so-called Aryan migrants. However, we find these pottery

types confined to a particular geographical region comprising Haryana, Upper Ganga basin and eastern Rajasthan.

iii) It was earlier thought that there exists a time gap and hence, a cultural discontinuity between the late Harappan and the post-Harappan chalcolithic Period. However, recent excavations at Bhagwanpura, Dadheri (Haryana), and Manda (Jammu) have shown that the Late Harappan and Painted Grey Wares could be found together without any breaks. Hence."invasion" cannot be proved on the basis of the excavated sites.

Q. What do you understand by 'pastoral society'? Why was it the dominant occupational activity of the Early Vedic people?.

A.  The Early Vedic society was pastoral, cattle rearing being the dominant occupational activity. A pastoral society relies more on its animal wealth than agricultural produce. Pastoralism is a subsistence strategy adopted by people who live in areas where large scale agriculture is not feasible due to some environmental and to a certain extent, cultural constraints. Compared to the very substantial linguistic evidence for cattle rearing in the Rigveda, agricultural activities find very few references. Most of the references to agriculture are of a later date. Apart from 'Yava' or barley, no other grains are mentioned. Early Vedic people did not use iron technology. Copper, with which they were familiar did not have as much value in agricultural operations as iron implements. Stone tools (like axes) were used and these are mentioned in the Rigveda. The fire was used to burn down the forest cover and shifting agriculture was practiced. Further, the region under discussion receives low rainfall and all the rivers mentioned in the Rigveda i.e. the Satluj, Indus, Ghaggar, Ravi, etc. are known to change their courses frequently. Without the facilities of large-scale irrigation which were not developed in this period, the alluvial lands near the rivers could not be cultivated on a permanent basis. Thus the hoes, sickles, and axes mentioned in the texts, were used for slashing purposes or shifting cultivation. The evidence of pastoralism as well as shifting cultivation suggests that the people were either nomadic or semi-nomadic. They moved out of their villages with their herds for a certain period in order to feed their cattle. The literary and the archaeological sources do show that the people did not lead a fully sedentary life.

Q. What was the importance of cattle in the Early Vedic Society? Answer in 50 words.

A. The Early Vedic society was pastoral, cattle rearing being the dominant occupational activity. A pastoral society relies more on its animal wealth than agricultural produce. Pastoralism is a subsistence strategy adopted by people who live in areas where large scale agriculture is not feasible due to some environmental and to a certain extent, cultural constraints. Social religions and all important areas of Rigvedic life centered round the rearing of cows. Literary references to pasture lands, a cow pen, dairy products, and domesticated animals are also found in most of the hymns and prayers. Hymns of the Rigveda yield extensive evidence of the importance of cattle in the Early Vedic society. Many linguistic expressions in the Rigveda are associated with the cow (gau). Cattle was the chief measure of wealth and a wealthy man who owned many cattle was called 'gomat'.

Q. Discuss five important characteristics of the Early Vedic Society? Write in 5 sentences.

A.  1) The Early Vedic Society was a tribal society, in which social relations based on Kinship ties were predominant.

2) The society was not divided according to caste lines, and even the rajas (kings), the purohits (priests), the artisans, etc. were parts of the clan networks.

3) The tribe was referred to as the Jana and many references to the different tribes are found in the Rigveda. Inter-tribal conflicts were frequent, an example being the battle of the Ten. Kings mentioned in the Rigveda.

4) Society was patriarchal. The birth of a son was the common desire of the people. The importance given to the male members is reflected in the hymns, where the desire for a son is a constant prayer.

5) Various occupational groups such as those of weavers, smith, carpenters, leather workers, chariot makers, priests, etc. are also mentioned. The chariot makers occupied a special social status. There are no references to beggars, wage-earners or wages in the Rigveda.

Q. What was the position of the Rajan in the Early Vedic polity?

A.  Raja was the chief of the tribe, frequent wars made him important, he was the protector of the tribe, his position was not always hereditary but he was selected from amongst the clansmen. Inter-tribal conflicts were frequent and most of these conflicts are for cattle raids, thefts, etc. Which were the mainstay of the economy and hence the office of Raja became important as a protecter.

Q. Discuss the nature of the religion of the Early Vedic people.

A. The religious ideas of the Vedic people are reflected in the hymns of the Rigveda. They venerated the natural forces around them (like wind, water, rain, thunder, fire, etc.) which they could not control. Indra and Agni were given the utmost importance, one for rains and others being pure and taking the offering directly to the gods. The sacrifice of animals was frequent and religion was based on material gains.

Unit 13

Q. Write in fifty words the impact iron technology had on Late Vedic society

A.  From the excavations, it appears that. the use of iron was restricted to making weapons. Iron did not influence agricultural technology until the second half of the first millennium B.C. when the marshlands and monsoon forests in the middle Gangetic valley were gradually cleared. Iron tipped weapons and horse chariots helped military activities which were rampant in this period and have been extensively documented in the Mahabharata. However, in subsistence related activities, iron technology had practically no role.

Q. What was the family in the later Vedic period?

A. The patriarchal family was well established and the grihapati acquired a Special status. Since the householding economy was gaining predominance, the position of the householder acquired economic importance. The rights on land were based on usage, and communal ownership of land prevailed. The grihapatis were wealthy and their ritual role was that of a yajamma (i.e. he who orders sacrifice). Their wealth did not come from gifts but was produced by their own efforts. Despite the

presence of some women philosophers and the references to a few queens participating in the coronation rituals, women were considered subordinate to men and were not involved in any major decision making.

Q. What does the changing status of gods in the Later Vedic phase indicate?

A.  The changing status of the deities is an indication of the change in the character of the tribes from pastoral groups to sedentary agriculturist groups. The Early Vedic gods who represented natural phenomena were slowly discarded and the personification of; natural elements as divine beings became very complex. It was no longer easy to find the natural element which represented a particular god from the hymns of the Later Vedic period. Two prominent EarlyVedic gods, Indra and

Agni lost its importance. Prajapati the creator became important, Rudra, a minor deity in the Rigveda, became important now and Vishnu was conceived as the creator and protector of the universe.