EHI -01

11th Part

Q- What are the main causes of the revolt of 1857 in India?

A.  - The causes for the revolt of 1987 were -

       1. Economic Causes - The most important cause of popular discontent was the British policy of economically exploiting India, hurting all sections of society. The peasants suffered due to high revenue demands and the strict revenue collection policy. Artisans and craftsmen were ruined by the large-scale influx of cheap British manufactured goods into India which, in turn, made their hand-made goods uneconomical to produce. People who made a living by following religious and cultural pursuits lost their source of livelihood due to the withdrawal of royal patronage caused by the displacement of the old ruling classes. A corrupt and unresponsive administration added to the miseries of the people.

       2. Political Causes - The British policy of territorial annexation led to the displacement of a large number of rulers and chiefs. The vigorous application of the policies of Subsidiary Alliance and Doctrine of Lapse angered the ruling sections of the society. Rulers of these territories became bitter enemies of the British and led to the revolt in their respective territories. They along with the other displaced ruling class were joined by their loyal soldiers and disgruntled Indian soldiers in the British army that spearheaded the revolt.

      3. Social- The social reforms introduced by the British were looked upon with suspicion by the conservative sections of the Indian society. Reforms such as the abolition of ‘Sati’, legalization of widow remarriage and extension of western education to women were looked upon as examples of interference in the social customs of the country. The social discrimination faced by the Indians due to the British attitude of racial superiority also led to much resentment.

      4. Religion - A major cause of the outbreak of the revolt was the fear among the people that the British government was determined to destroy their religion and convert Indians to Christianity. The increasing activities of the Christian missionaries and the actual conversions made by them were taken as proof of this fear. 

      5. Military-  Discontent, and resentment against British rule among Indian soldiers became the immediate cause of the revolt. At that time, the Enfield rifle was introduced in the army. Its cartridges were covered with a greased paper cover. This greased cover had to be bitten off before the cartridge could be loaded into the rifle. The news spread that the grease was made of cow and pig fat. As the Hindus consider the cow sacred and the Muslims do not eat pit’s meat, both these communities were enraged at such a blatant attempt to harm their religion.

Q.-  What are the factors that led to the partition of India.

  A.  The Partition of India was the 1947 partitioning of the British Indian Empire into India and Pakistan. The partition of India was the most significant event in the history of India. Its chief reason was the antic thinking of the Muslims and their communal outlook. The following factors contributed to it - 

       1.   Jinnah and the Muslim League: - He instigated religious passions and fears among the Muslim masses since 1930. He was more concerned with the fact that Congress didn't have Muslim representatives in the 1946 Provincial Elections. He claimed in his 1940 Muslim League Presidential Address that cultures, literature, and way of living and views on life were different from the two communities. The theory of one nation had been carried along too far and that it was nothing but a far fetched dream.

       2.  The British policy of Divide And Rule: -The English Govt played a significant role in the formation of the Muslim League. The English wanted to create dissensions among the people of India in order to consolidate their own position. The chief aim of the Muslim League was so spread the poison of communalism and the Muslim leaders had their own axe to grind through the medium of this organization. The Brits promoted communal electorates, special Care was taken to promote animosity between the two groups.        

                 3. Congress leadership:- Congress leadership underestimated Jinnah, Muslim League, its ambitions and outreach. The policy of appeasement of the Muslims, adopted by the congress also proved helpful in this field. Unfortunately, Congress couldn't understand the isolationist and aggressive policy of the Muslim and it continued to sustain the false, hope that there might be some miracle by which the communal problem could be averted forever.

      4. Communal Reaction:- As a result of Muslim Communalism spreading, Hindu Communalism also came into being. The staunch Hindus formed organizations like Hindu Maha Sabha that spearheaded Hindu causes. The system of Shuddi which was adopted by the Arya Samaj created doubt in the minds of the Muslims. Hindu Maha Sabha not only raised a slogan for the establishment of a Hindu nation but also blamed the Congress for being anti- Hindu organization. As a result of the Hindu communalism, the Muslim communalism grew all the more powerful and they raised the slogan of a separate nation.

                    The Partition of India was the 1947 partitioning of the British Indian Empire into India and Pakistan. According to estimates 14 million Hindus, Sikhs, and Muslims were displaced during the partition; it was the largest mass migration in human history.

Q.-  Discuss the process of formation of the Indian National Army (I.N.A). What was its role in the struggle for Indian Independence?

A.  The Indian National Army, I.N.A or Azad Hind Fauj was the army of Arzi Hukumat-e-Azad Hind (The Provisional Government of Free India). It was an armed force which was formed during World War II by Indian nationalists and Prisoners of war (PoWs). Its aim was to secure Indian independence from British colonial rule. The army was first formed in 1942 under Mohan Singh, by Indian PoWs of the British-Indian Army captured by Japan in the Malayan campaign and in Singapore. In the Countries of south-east Asia, there were large numbers of people of the Indian organ. When the British were defeated in Malaya and Burma, they left their Indian soldiers to their fate and fled. Taking advantage of this situation an old revolutionary named Rash Bihari Bose, who was living in Japan organized the Indians and formed the Indian Independence League. Japan handed over to the League the Indian Prisoners of war, who were organized into a liberation army. It became famous as the Azad Hind Fauj or Indian National Army (I.N. A.) 

                           The INA was initially formed under Mohan Singh, the captain in the 1/14th Punjab Regiment in the British Army. However, the first INA under Mohan Singh collapsed and finally it was revived under the leadership of Subhash Chandra Bose. INA emerged along with Mahatma Gandhi`s peaceful resistance movement within India. In contrast to Mahatma Gandhi, Bose advocated a more aggressive confrontation with the British authorities. The concept of an armed force fighting to overthrow the British Raj in colonial India with Japanese assistance originated within the Indian independence movement. During the Second World War, the plan to fight the British found revival and the number of leaders and movements was initiated. These included "liberation armies" formed in and with the help of Italy, Germany as well as in South-east Asia. Thus in South East Asia, the concept of the INA emerged. INA had many valued freedom fighters, who helped in the battles. They all had a brilliant background and fought for a similar cause, freedom of India. The INA freedom fighters were from every sphere ranging from barristers to plantation workers.. The revival of the Indian National Army was done by Subhas Chandra Bose. In 1943 he reached Singapore and assumed leadership of INA. Thus with his motivation and determination, INA doubled in strength and local civilians joined. Most of the people who joined had no prior military experience and thus to ensure a well-trained army.

Q.-   Write a note on the Non-Cooperation movement.

A-     The Non-cooperation Movement (Asahayog Andolan) was the next major event in the Indian struggle for freedom after the First War of Independence in 1857. This movement started in 1920 and lasted through 1922, supported all along by the Indian National Congress. Under Gandhi's leadership, the movement aimed at resisting British rule through non-violence. Activists refused to buy British goods, used only local handicrafts and picketed liquor shops. The goal was to uphold Indian honor and integrity in a peaceful manner. Thousands of common citizens rallied for the cause and it was the first large scale movement in the history of India’s independence.

               Many factors culminated over time leading to the Non-cooperation movement. Some of the significant causes were – growing British oppression of Indians as seen by the Rowlatt Act and Jalianwala Bagh massacre, economic inequality due to Indian wealth being exported to Britain, downturn of Indian artisans due to British factory-made goods replacing handmade goods, and strong resentment about Indian soldiers in the British army dying in World War I while fighting battles that otherwise had nothing to do with India. The non-cooperation movement seriously challenged the economic and political power of the British. The movement achieved overwhelming success across India. On February 5, 1922, violent clashes occurred between the local police and the protesters in Chauri Chaura. Three protesters were killed in police firing, and a police station was set on fire by the mob, killing 22 policemen.

                  Mahatma Gandhi felt that the movement had gone off-course and lost its non-violent nature. He did not want it to degenerate further and become violent. So he appealed to the Indian masses to cease the disobedience and went on a fast lasting 3 weeks. However, Gandhiji was arrested on March 10, 1922, and imprisoned for 6 years for publishing rebellious material. While most Congress leaders stood by Mahatma Gandhi, many nationalists felt that the Non-Cooperation Movement should not have been stopped due to isolated incidents of violence. Gandhi's commitment to non-violence continued and resulted in another major movement in the fight for Indian Independence – The Salt Satyagraha.

Q.-  a) Drain of wealth

A.      The Drain of Wealth theory was systemically initiated by Dadabhai Naoroji in 1867 and further analyzed and developed by eminent scholars. The "drain of wealth" depicts the constant flow of wealth from India to England during British Colonial rule for which India did not get an adequate economic, commercial or material return. The colonial government was utilizing Indian resources- revenues, agriculture, and industry not for developing India but for its utilization in Britain. If these resources had been utilized within India then it could have been transformed the Indian economy immensely by investing in manufacturing and rural areas and thus increasing the income of the people. Scholars opined that one-third of India’s national income was being drained away-in one form or the other. 

              According to Dadabhai Naoroji, the following forms of the drain can be identified:

• Home charges refer to the interest on public debt raised in England at comparatively higher rates; expenditure incurred in England by the Secretary of State on behalf of India; Annuities on account of railway and irrigation works; Indian office expenses including pensions to retired officials who had worked in India or England, pensions to army and naval etc.

• Remittances to England by Europeans to their families.

• Remittances for purchase of British Goods for the consumption of British    Employees as well as purchases by them of British Goods in India.

• Interest charges on public debt held in Britain.

       b) Rowlatt Act -

                              In the year 1919, the British Government passed a new rule called Rowlatt Act, under which the Government had the authority and power to arrest people and keep them in prisons without any trial if they are suspected with the charge of terrorism. The act was named after the recommendations made in the previous year to the Imperial Legislative Council by the Rowlatt Commission. The Rowlatt Commission was appointed to investigate the `seditious conspiracy` of the Indian people. The Law passed empowered the Viceroy Government with extraordinary power to stop all violations by silencing the press, confining political activists without trial and arresting any individual suspected of sedition and treachery and arresting individuals without any warrant.

              Nationalist leaders including Gandhi Ji were extremely critical about the enactment of the Rowlatt Act. To oppose the Act a nationwide protest was raised by calling a Hartal (cessation of work) where Indians suspended all the business and fasted to show their hatred for the British legislation.

Q.  What is de-industrialization? What was its impact on the Indian economy during the colonial period?  

 A.   De-industrialization is a long-term process of structural change in an economy to destruct industrial production. The process that leads to the long-time decline of industry, a fall in the contribution made by the manufacturing sector to national output, employment, income and overall prosperity of the country is called de-industrialization. 

       Impact on Indian economy during the colonial period -           

               India was a major player in the world export market for textiles and handicrafts. In the early 18th century, but by the middle of the 19th century it had lost all of its export market and much of its domestic market. Other local industries also suffered a decline, and India underwent secular de-industrialization as a consequence. While India produced about 25 percent of world industrial output in 1750, this figure fell to only 2 percent by 1900. There were a number of different ways to measure the extent to which our manufacturing sector experienced de-industrialization:-

        De-industrialization - The direct impact was, In the last three decades of the eighteenth century, East India Company after wiping out other European traders established their monopoly, thereafter English traders reduced the prices paid to Indian artisans. This excessive exploitation of Indian artisans weakened the very basis of handicraft industries by reducing the artisan to a low level of income. It also destroyed the possibility of accumulation of resources to invest in the industry and to improve its technology. After the Industrial Revolution in England, the handicraft industry faced further decay as traditional textile exports from India couldn't compete on scale and price with finished industrial goods. Easy availability of British goods without import duties further eroded home market demand for the handicraft industry. 

        Rural Decline- Other aspects of colonialism in India were the commercialization of agriculture and the subsequent decline of food grains production in the country. The rural economy was the backbone of the Indian economy during pre-colonial times. The British traders firstly seduced farmers in the transformation of crops from food grains to commercial crops like indigo, opium, etc which was commercially profitable for Company traders with a serious drawback for peasants. This negatively impacted economy as final products was purchased at lower prices while the reduction of food grains led to impoverishment and famines thus wiping out the purchasing power of rural masses. The survival and flourishing of home industries further took a beating indirectly as the home markets shrank while British traders benefited immensely under colonial rule.

       The drain of wealth - Another way by which Britishers exploited India was through the systematic policy of ferrying the economic resources of India to Britain. The officials of the British government were paid exorbitant incomes out of the Indian exchequer money by the levy of taxes on the Indian public.

          The industrial revolution and favorable conditions for British traders under colonial rule in India ended the role of individual artisans, caused havoc in the rural economy and caused irreparable damage to the textile, handicraft industry of India. However, in England and other European countries, the loss of craftsmen was compensated by the growth of industry and factory system. In India, the colonial policies did not allow the industry to grow freely and hence Indian economy shrank considerably under colonial rule. From the economy of India producing about 25 percent of world industrial output in 1750 before colonial rule, this figure fell to only 2 percent by 1900 during colonial rule. Therefore we can conclude that Colonial rule in India by its inherent nature, lopsided policies, and greed for profit worked for benefit of England and in turn impoverished India. 

Q2. What is communalism? Discuss the process of its emergence in Indian society.

A.   Communalism arises among the society when a particular religious or sub-religious group tries to dominate and promote its own interests at the expense of others. In simple terms, it can be defined as to distinguish people on the basis of religion. Communalism is political trade in religion to further the interests of one religious community by intimidating or subjugation of rest. It is an ideology on which communal politics is based and communal violence is threatened or perpetrated in the society causing division of society on a religious basis. It is basically an ideology which consists of three elements:-

1.  A belief that people who follow the same religion have common secular interests i.e. they have the same political, economic and social interests. It leads to communal groupings and division of society.

2.  A presumption that in a multi-religious society like India, these common secular interests of one religion are dissimilar and divergent from the interests of the follower of another religion.

3.  The interests of the follower of the different religions or of different ‘communities’ are seen to be completely incompatible, antagonist and hostile towards followers of other faiths marking social division and religious hatred among different religious communities.

         Communalism is used to construct religious or ethnic identity, incite strife between people identified as different communities, and to stimulate communal violence between those groups. It derives from history, differences in beliefs, and tensions between the communities.

 The emergence of Communalism in Indian society

Communalism was a method for providing service to colonialism and the jagirdari class (land officials). British authorities supported communal feelings and divided Indian society for their authoritative ruling.  Official patronage was given to communal organizations and attempts were made to placate several organizations with communal orientation. Communal press & persons and agitations were shown extraordinary tolerance. Communal demands were accepted, thus politically strengthening communal organizations. British started accepting communal organizations and leaders as the real spokesperson of communities and adopted a policy of non-action against communalism. In fact, for the same reasons even the communal riots were not crushed. Separate electorate started in 1909 further divided the society causing irreparable damage to social fabric creating a wedge that eventually led to the division of the country .

Stages in Indian Communalism

          The first stage was the rise of nationalist organizations of Hindu, Muslim, Sikh, etc. which were tacitly supported by British Colonial rulers. Roots of this were led in the latter part of the 19th century with the Hindu revivalist movements like the Shuddhi movement of Arya Samaj and the Cow protection riots of 1892. People like Syed Ahmed Khan, who despite having a scientific and rational approach, projected Indian Muslims as a separate community (qaum) having an interest different from others.

         The second stage was of Liberal communalism, it believed in communal politics but liberal in democratic, humanist and nationalist values. It was basically before 1937. For example organizations like Hindu Mahasabha, Muslim League and personalities like M.A. Jinnah, M M Malviya, Lala Lajpat Rai after the 1920s. 

         The third was the stage of Extreme communalism, this had a fascist syndrome. It demanded a separate nation, based on fear and hatred. There was a tendency to use violence of language, deed, and behavior. For example the Muslim League and Hindu Mahasabha after 1937.

Thus the Colonial rulers sowed the seeds of communal hatred in society causing deep division of Indian society leading to communal riots and eventual division of the country on a religious basis. The British rulers adopted the policy of 'Divide and Rule' to strengthen their roots while living in India. They divided the people of various communities of India and spread the feeling of distrust among them and hence they sowed the seeds of communalism in India.