EHI - 3

2nd Part
Block-2

Q.  Analyze the social organization of early medieval India with special reference to the Varna system. 

A.  The major economic forces of the period were largescale land grants, a decline of trade, commerce, and urban life; the paucity of money, agrarian expansion & growing agrarian character of society, and the emergence of relatively closed local units of production and consumption. On this basis evolved a social structure broadly characterized by a sizable ruling landed aristocracy, intermediaries and a large body of the impoverished peasantry. The unequal distribution of landed property and power led to the emergence of new social groups and ranks which cut across varna divisions like a brahmana, kshatriya, vaisya, and sudra. The other important changes in the social structure involved the emergence and proliferation of new castes, the hardening of caste relations and the acculturation of the tribes.

The post-eighth century social organization was marked by -

#  modifications in the varna system such as the transformation of Shudras into cultivators thereby bringing them closer to the vaishyas,

#  newly founded Brahmanical order in Bengal and South India wherein the intermediary varna were absent, and finally, the rise of the new literate class struggling for a place in the varna order,

# phenomenal increase in the rise of new mixed castes,

# unequal distribution of land and military power, which, in turn, accounts for the emergence of feudal ranks cutting across varna distinctions, and increasing evidence of social tensions.

        The early medieval period was characterized by the emergence and spread of new jatis (castes). The increase in the number of new castes affected the Brahmanas, the kshatriyas, the Kayastha and the Sudras. The number of mixed castes and of the untouchable castes increased enormously. The transformation of craft guilds into castes as a result of the decline of trade and of urban centers and the localized hereditary character of the crafts helped the process of the formation of new jatis. The Vishnudharmottara Purana, a work of the eighth century, mentions that thousands of mixed castes were produced as a result of the union of Vaisya women with men of lower castes.

Kayasthas - The scribe or the Kayastha community was a product of the socio-economic forces of the times. Land grants involved the transfer of land revenues and land to Brahmanas, religious establishments and officials. This and other complex administrative functions created the need for a body of scribes and record keepers who were employed to draft assignment of land and keep details of land transfer, including various items of revenue. This difficult job was carried out by a class of writers who were known variously as Kayastha, Karana, karanika, pustapala, Chitragupta, aksapatalika, etc.

The untouchables

A sizable section of the Sudras was rising in social and economic status after their association with agriculture, and sections of the Vaisyas, particularly those at the lower end, were descending to the level of the Sudras. Thus, there was a change in the relative positions of the two lower varnas. The Sudras were no longer slaves and servants; they emerged as tenants, share-croppers, and cultivators.

Absence of Intermediary Varnas in Bengal and South India 

removing distinctions between the vaishyas and Shudras resulted in the emergence of a social order typified by an absence of intermediary in Bengal and South India. The new Brahmanical order in these areas provided mainly for brahmans and Shudras. This may have been partly due to the influence of non-Brahmanical religions in these regions. However, the nature of the progress of Brahmanism also contributed to this development.

 Varnasamkara

Varnasamkara meant the inter-mixing and /or union of varnas/castes, normally not socially approved, leading to the emergence of mixed castes, which symbolized social disorder.

With the substantial increase in the number of new castes greater rigidity was introduced into the caste system and inter-caste marriages came to be viewed with disfavor. Earlier, anuloma marriages or marriages between a bridegroom from an upper caste and a bride from a lower caste were sanctioned. It was the pratiloma manage (the reverse of anuloma) which was censured. However, increasingly anuloma marriages too were not favored.

Q.  Write a note on various styles of temple architecture. 

Q.  Discuss the salient features of different styles of temple architecture. 

A.  Indian temples symbolized the very ethos, of the life-style of people through the Millennium. 

Major Styles -

The ancient texts on Indian temple architecture broadly classify them into three orders. The terms Nagara, Dravida, and Vesara indicate a tendency to highlight the typological features of temples and their geographical distribution.          

           Nagara and Dravida temples are generally identified with the northern and southern temple styles respectively. All of northern India, from the foothills of the Himalayas to the central plateau of the Deccan is furnished with temples in the northern style. The Dravida followed a more consistent development track and was confined to the most southerly, portions of the sub-continent, especially between the Krishna river and Kanyakumari. The Vesara style was confined to the country between the Vindhyas and the river Krishna. 

Shapes, Plans, and Language of Temples

Each temple style has its own distinctive technical language, though some terms are common but applied to different parts of the building in each style. The sanctuary, which is the main part is called the vimana where the garbhagriha or the inner sanctum containing the main presiding deity is located. The part surmounting the vimana is known as the shikhara. The other elements of the ground plan are -mandapa or pavilion for the assembly of devotees; antarala, which is a vestibule connecting the vimana and mandapa & the pradakshiapath, i.e. circumarnbulatory passage surrounding these. 

Ecological Setting, Raw Materials and Regionalisation

Temples have evolved depending upon the region and availability of raw material. In the relatively heavy rainfall areas of the western coast of India and Bengal, temples have sloping tiled roofs, giving rise to timber gables. To overcome the hazards of snow and hail, wooden sloped roofs are also employed in the temples of the Himalayan belt. In general, the hotter and drier the climate, the flatter the roof; open porches provide shaded seating and pierced stone. .screens are utilized to filter the light. Apart from the ecological influences availability of local raw materials played a dominant role in techniques of construction and carving.

Presiding Deities

Temples were dedicated not only to two great gods of the Brahmanical pantheon, viz., Shiva and Vihqu but to the Great Mother Goddess as well. Depiction of divinities big and small, benevolent and malevolent, celestial and terrestrial, atmospheric and heavenly, devas and asuras and countless folk deities such as yakshas, vakshis,' apsaras and kinnaris were frequently represented. Even animal or bird 'vehicles' (vahanas) of these divinities shed their muteness and become eloquent carriers of meaningful symbolism. Thus, Nandi, the agricultural bull of Shiva is fully expressive of the god's sexuality; the tiger, the mount of Durga embodies her fierce strength and aggressiveness. The river goddesses, Ganga and Yamma are identified by their vahanas, I.e crocodile & tortoise respectively. Lakshmi's association with

elephants, lotus flowers and water not only symbolize her popularity as the goddess of fortune but more importantly as a divinity conveying the magical power of agricultural fertility - an aspect that goes back to the days of the Rigveda. Swan carrying Saraswati typified not only her grace and elegance but the tremendous intellectual discerning capacity which is an integral element of this goddess of learning.

Q.  Describe the role played by temples on spreading the cultural ethos.

A.  To begin with, general education within the temple was of great importance. Many endowments to temples were specifically made for the establishment of college which were incorporated into temple complexes. The teaching of such subjects as grammar and astrology as well as recital and teaching of texts such as the Vedas, the Epics Ramayana, and the Mahabharata and the Puranas were encouraged. Music and dance generally formed part of the daily ritual of the temples and during special celebrations and annual festivals, these played a particularly dominant role. Large

temples would maintain their own musicians - both vocal and instrumental, together with dancers, actors, and teachers of performing arts. The life-size delineations of such musicians in a tenth-century temple at Khajuraho as well as in the Sun temple at Konarka and nata mandir (dancing hall) formed an absolutely integral element in the Orissan and other temples also provide eloquent testimonies to that effect. Many temples had regular festivals that provided opportunities for the mingling of mythology and folklore, as for instance, the annual hthayatra of the Jagarinatha temple at Pun. The undertaking of pilgrimage (tirtha yatra) is yet another mechanism through which the participation of the community in temple activities was facilitated. Temples provided work and the means of livelihood for a large number of persons, they were able to exert great influence upon the economic life of people. Religious establishments became centers of learning.

Q. Analyze the growth of the Bhakti movement in medieval India.

A. Bhakti movement constitutes a very important chapter in the socio-cultural history of India. From the mid-sixth century, Shaiva and Vaishnava saints (Nayanmars and Alvars respectively) and their followers practiced and propagated bhakti in the countryside & went to pilgrim centers singing and dancing. Originating in sixth century Kanchipuram, the area under the Pallavas, it had traversed the full length of Tarnilaham by the end of the ninth century and, engulfed all the major kingdoms of the Cholas, Pandyans and the Cheras. It, later on, engulfed the whole of North as a result of the impetus given by the Tamil saints. The spread of the movement is intimately associated with the temple base.

  Characteristics of the Bhakti Movement

1.  There was no need to perform rituals, yagas or complicated methods to praise god. One could worship God by love and devotion.

2.  There was no need to worship different idols or deities. Bhakti movement emphasized belief in one god.

3.  Bhakti saints emphasized stress on equality of all castes. They said that no one is high or low in front of god. Everyone is equal.

4.  Due to stress on castes' equality, other religions came closer to the Hindu religion. This emphasized Hindu Muslim unity.

5.  Before the bhakti movement, the Sanskrit language was used to perform yagas or rituals. Religious books or scriptures were in the Sanskrit language. This language was mostly understood by Brahmans. Common people were not able to understand this language. But bhakti saints preached in the language of common people. So it became easy to understand for everyone.

6.  Before the bhakti movement, it was plenty of complicated rituals to realize god or have the grace of God. But bhakti saints preached everyone that you only need a true, honest and kind heart to reach and realize god.

7.  Due to this movement religion became a matter of spirituality and devotion; instead of rituals and propaganda.

There were many factors that helped in the development of the Bhakti movement. Some important factors are as follows:

1. During the medieval period, Hindus were mistreated by Muslim rulers. Hindus were forced to convert their religion to Islam and imposed jaziya on them. To preserve their religion, Hindus supported and strongly contributed to the bhakti movement.

2. Hindu society was divided into lower castes and upper castes. The people of lower castes had to suffer discrimination, injustice, and cruelties by the persons of the upper castes. So, people of lower castes supported bhakti saints because these saints preached equality of castes.

3. Rituals and complicated methods were performed to praise god. But due to insufficient knowledge and lack of money, a common man was not able to do such kind of things. Bhakti saints preached the path of devotion and discarded all rituals. Bhakti saints told a common man that to realize God, one needs only a kind, loving and devotional hearth and nothing else.

4. There were many evils in Hindu society. Bhakti saints tried to remove these evils and emphasized on the moral life. So everybody supported them.

5. Due to mechanical methods of rituals, the Hindu religion had become a dead religion. There was no scope for any new idea, creativity, and thought. Bhakti saints tried to revive this religion. They make it more intellectual; instead of mechanical. This was a rebirth of Hinduism.

                The Alvars and Nayanars led some of the earliest bhakti movements (c. sixth century). Alvars – those who are “immersed” in devotion to Vishnu while Nayanars – who were devotees of Shiva. They traveled from place to place singing hymns in Tamil praising their gods. The Alvars and Nayanars initiated a movement of protest against the caste system and the dominance of Brahmanas or at least attempted to reform the system. This is supported by the fact that bhaktas or disciples hailed from diverse social backgrounds ranging from Brahmanas to artisans and cultivators and even from castes considered “untouchable”. The Nalayira Divyaprabandham (“Four Thousand Sacred Compositions”) – one of the major anthologies of compositions of the 12 Alvars compiled by the 10th Century. It was frequently described as the Tamil Veda, thus claiming that the text was as significant as the four Vedas in Sanskrit that was cherished by the Brahmanas.

Q.  Define Hero stones. Does change in the styles of hero stones reflects the change in the status of the hero being memorized. 

A.  The hero-stones are found in most parts of the Indian sub-continent. There has been a long and almost continuous history of these relics for more than 1500 years and extends to both Brahmanical and non-Brahmanical religions. They are locally called viragals, natugals, paliyas, Govardhana stambhes, Kirti-stambhas, Chhaya-stambhas, or merely as chhatris, stambhas devalis, etc. These tablets or pillars fall into several groups originating in ritual or cult practices as well as religious or social customs of its patrons :

#  The Chhaya-stambha is among the earliest archaeological evidence, and it seems to be rooted in the social practices of the Buddhists.

#  The nisidhi represents the ritual death practices exclusively by the Jains.

#  The viragals or at least the currency of this term-cross religious demarcation, if

not the conventional geographical limits of southern India.

#  The Kirti-stamba, paliya, chatri, devali and stambha share the country between the Himalayas and the Vindhyas-mostly in Gujarat and Rajasthan.

      The change in the style of hero-stones seems to reflect a change in the status of the hero being memorialized. Many of the earlier stones from Tamil Nadu come from the North Arcot district which is known to have been at that time an area of Livestock breeding, where cattle-raiding would be one method of increasing wealth. Later, elaborate stones commemorated heroes who claimed to belong to the upper caste groups, often claim Kshatriya status. The indication of the hero's religious sect was due to the influence of the bhakti sects. Hero stones are mostly found in upland areas, in the vicinity of passes across hills, and in areas regarded as frontier zones, pastoral region, outskirts of forests and 'tribal areas' of Central India. Hero-stone is relatively Infrequent in the large agricultural tracts of the Indus and the Ganga valleys a& in the agriculturally rich delta areas of the peninsula.

Q.  The Nayankara System 

Q.  Critically examine the formation and consolidation of lineage power in the Deccan.

A.   The emergence of new ruling lineages was a continuous process in the Deccan. The inscriptions issued between the eighth and the thirteenth centuries speak of the emergence of several major & minor ruling powers such as the Rashtrakutas, Chalukyas, Silaharas, Kakatiyas, Sevunas (Yadavas), Hoysalas, etc. The period in the Deccan was characterized not only by the emergence of the new ruling lineages but also by the branching off of the existing ones. Thus, apart from the main Chalukyan house ruling from Badami, there were collateral Chalukya lines ruling in various places such as Lata, Vengi as also a line bearing the Chalukya name in vemulavada. There were some individual members who claim to belong to the Chalukya kula or vamsha in different localities in Karnataka. Similarly, apart from the main Sevuna lineage ruling from Devagiri, there was a minor Sevuna family ruling over a territorial division called Masavadi. Similarily the Gangas & the Nolambas had also thrown off many junior branches. The branches of a ruling line continued to be operative for centuries even after the mainline disappeared from the arena. An example can be cited in the Vengi line of the Chalukyas, which was brought into being by Pulakesin-II of the Badami Chalukyas. The minor branches of the Gangas, the Kadambas, and others also outlived the main lines of their respective families. The status, power and territorial extent of the lineages w-re not uniform. Sometimes the relationship between the lineage and its territory was expressed in the form of the name of the area in which the lineage was dominant as for example the Gangavadi, Nolambavadi, etc. The changing distribution patterns of ruling lineages did not necessarily correspond to static territorial units. For example, the Kalachuris who appear in the sixth century A.D. as the rulers of a vast area comprising Malwa, Gujarat, Konkan, Maharashtra, and Vidarbha also established several nuclei of power as in Tripuri (near Jabalpur) and Ratanpur in the upper Narmada basin. One of their branches ventured into a remote area of Eastern India which came to be known as Sarayupar. A segment of the Kalachuri line migrated to Karnataka. Kalachuris of Karnataka claim to be the descendants of the Kalachuris of central India.

              The formation and mobilization of lineage power developed along with a variety of ways. A lineage power could be brought into being by simply replacing another. The Vengi line of the Chalukyas was brought into existence by eliminating the erstwhile powerholders of the Telugu speaking country when Pulakesin-11 of the Badami Chalukya line conquered it. Second, it could involve the settlement of new areas by an immigrant line and change of the economic pattern of the region. For example, Kalanjara having been conquered by the Pratiharas and subsequently by the Rashtrahtas, some members of the Kalachuri line living there migrated southward to seek new pastures. A segment of it migrated towards the forested tract of Kuntala and settled at Mangaliveda now in the Sholapur district of Maharashtra.

Q.  Samanta 

A.  By the twelfth century, a hierarchical system of Samantas had become considerably elaborate which is written in texts and have epigraphic evidence. These Samantas could create their own sub-feudatories and appoint their own officers. It was possible for feudatory chiefs also to distribute their lands among their dependents. The feudatories could also assign taxes, alienate villages and exempt certain people from taxation. This practice of granting land and its associated fiscal and administrative rights is called sub-infeudation. The feudatories owed fiscal and military obligations to the overlord. Generally, the authority of the feudatories was derivative, dependent on the fulfillment of certain conditions of which supplying the overlord with certain quotas of soldiers in time of need was one. The paramaras of Vagada fought in the cause of the imperial Paramaras of Malwa for more than once. The Paramaras of Abu, Kiradu, and Jalor being the feudatory chiefs of the Chalukyas of Gujarat, laid down their lives in the cause of their masters many times. Feudatories are also said to have paid tribute to their overlord both in cash and kind. However, there was no hard and fast rule regarding the obligations of the feudatory chiefs of different categories. The general relations between the overlord and the feudatory depended upon the circumstances and relative strength of the feudatory vis-a-vis his suzerain. Samantas had no permanent bonds and were prepared to transfer their allegiance to a powerful invader in return for greater privileges. The shifting allegiances of Samantas were one of the major causes of political instability.

Q.   Discuss the rise of Rajput Kingdoms in Western India during the medieval period. 

A.   The rise of the Rajputs to political prominence took place within the existing hierarchical political structure. The Rajput clans such as the Gurjara Pratihara, Guhila, Paramara, Chahamana as well as the Kalachuris & Chandella exploited, political uncertainties of post-Gupta and post tenth centuries in Western and Central India. The early medieval and medieval Rajput clans represented a mixed caste and constituted a large section of petty chiefs holding, estates and thus achieved political eminence gradually. There was the clan-based distribution of political authority among the Rajput dynasties such as the Chahamanas of Rajasthan and the Paramaras of southern Rajasthan, Gujarat, and Malwa. Apart from the subdivisions of major clans, the emergence of various minor clans was another important aspect of the proliferation of the Rajputs in early medieval period. The continuing process of the formation of Rajput clans was through the acquisition of political power. The new clans and subdivisions of earlier clans were drawn into the Rajput political network in a variety of ways.

         The formation and consolidation of lineage power did not develop in a uniform way. One of the indicators of the process of lineage power formation was the colonization of new areas, as is evident in the expansion of the number of settlements. The colonization of new areas could result from the annexation of the new territories by means of organized military strength. The Chauhan kingdom of Nadol known as Saptrshata was made by a Chauhan chief who killed chiefs of the boundaries of his kingdom and annexed their villages. Territorial expansion of the Western Indian powers was accomplished, on some areas, at the expense of tribal settlements.

          The emergence of the Rajput kingdoms in Western and Central India was associated with certain features. At the level of the economy, the patterns of land distribution were one major reason. This process of land grants assignments was higher in Rajasthan than in other parts. This feature began the process which gradually developed and was associated with the spread of a clan. 

Another pattern was the holding of units consisting of villages that were part of administrative divisions as mandala or bhakti. These units seem to have become centers of some kind of local control. The units of 84 villages (chaurasia) which were held in Saurashtra by the Gurjara Pratiharas gradual19 spread to Rajasthan. This extension facilitated the land distribution and political control among the ruling elites. Between the tenth and twelfth centuries, the kings and princes of Chahamana and Paramara clans held such big holdings. The process coincided with the construction of fortresses on a large scale in different locations. Apart from serving defense purposes the fortresses also worked as foci of control for their rural surroundings and helped the process of the consolidation of ruling families. 

          The marriage network among the ruling clans is another pointer to the process of the consolidation of clan power at the social level. Marriage network brought about the inter-clan relationship which had significant political implications because the families were mostly from the ruling Rajput clans.

Q.  Describe the political process in South India during medieval times.

A.  The post-Gupta history of India is dominated by the evolution of a number of regional polities. Some of them emerged as regional states (Orissa and Tamil Nadu) coinciding with regional cultures. Others were smaller polities located as buffers between larger ones. This is well illustrated by the larger polities of South India such as those of the Pallavas of Kanchipuram and the Pandyas of Madurai in Tamil Nadu (sixth to ninth centuries A.D.). Dispersed between these larger ones were several smaller powers such as the Western Gangas, Kadambas, Banas and a host of others, owing allegiance alternatively to the larger lineages of the Deccan and Tamil plains or occasionally establishing their independence. The most powerful of these regional polities was, however, that of the Cholas (ninth to thirteenth centuries), who with the Kaveri Valley as the nucleus of their, power, succeeded in establishing their territorial sovereignty covering the whole of the Tamil macro-region. The Cholas were able to estab1ish.a regional state with its distinctive politico-cultural features.

Q.  Discuss in brief the nature of Nadu and Valanadu. Or Describe the agrarian structure in South India. 

A.  The Nadu - It dates from pre-Pallava times and is marked by common agrarian features and a kinship-based social organization. The production processes in the Nadu were controlled by the natter assembly (the Nadu) composed of the heads of peasant families of velalas (agriculturists). The Nadu consisted of subsistence level settlements coming together for common economic and social activities. The integration of the nadus into a larger and systematic agrarian organization through land grants to brahmans (brahmadeya) & the temple by the ruling families (Pallavas, Pandya, and Chola) let to the emergence of the first regional Tamil polities. Special emphasis was laid on the construction of irrigation works, advanced irrigation technology, and their management through the brahmana assembly called the Sabha. Thus, the earlier subsistence-level production of Nadu was transformed into a surplus oriented one which resulted in a restructuring of the economy. The brahmadeya and temple not only helped in agrarian integration but also played political roles by acting as instruments of mobilization and redistribution of resources.

          With its expansion and integration through the brahmadeya & the temple, and due to new irrigation work, the internal structure of the Nadu also changed. Land rights and tenures became wore complex, land relations became stratified, & the composition of the netter also underwent changes. The kinship basis of social organization was eroded and gave place to a Brahmanical caste and ritual ranking, i.e. caste hierarchy. The Nadu, although it evolved as a kinship-based agrarian unit, shows the prevalence of a variety of collective controls overproduction. This is seen in the hereditary rights in land which were transferable by sale or donation. Various ' categories of rights in land existed & were determined & enjoyed within the norms accepted by the contemporary organizations of the brahmadeya, nonbrahmadeya(ur) settlements, and the family.

The Brahmadeya - Land grants to Brahmanas are known from early historic times. However, it is only by the end of the sixth century that it assumed an institutional character in the Tamil region. Bmhmadeyrs were invariably created by ruling families in hitherto uncultivated land or among existing settlements (within a Nadu or kottam) by clubbing together two or more settlements.                          They introduced advanced farming methods-irrigation, management of means of production and resources. The Pallava and Pandya reservoir systems were managed by the brahmana assembly viz. the Sabha. The brahmadeya were separated from the jurisdiction of the Nadu. The major brahmadeya also became independent units (tan-kuru) from the tenth century especially under the Cholas, adding to their economic & administrative /political significances. They are often regarded as pacemakers of royal authority, enlarging the sphere of political action. The Sabha or the assembly of the brahmana landowners grew into a more prominent institution vis-a-vis the Ur, the assembly of a non-brahmadeya settlement. The growing maturity of the Sabha is illustrated by the famous Uttaramerur (Chingleput district), a major brahmadeya and tan-kuru of the eighth to thirteenth centuries as well as by Manur (Tirunelveli district), an important brahmadeya of the eighth and ninth centuries. The tan-kuru had a central function also and often had under its purview several other centers of agricultural and craft production. The Brahmanical temple, which was invariably the nucleus of many of these settlements, was also under the supervision or direct control of the Sabha, which functioned through various committees called variyams.

Valanadu - Revenue surveys and assessment of land revenue were systematically undertaken under the Cholas, in the eleventh century. In the process, new and larger revenue units were formed by grouping some nadus together and even by partitioning some

under different valanadus. This was determined by their irrigational needs and hence valanadus had consciously chosen boundaries such as watercourses. The valanadu was an artificial unit and a politico-economic division created by the will of political authority. The valanadus were named after the kings who created them. Their organization was also linked with the establishment of a hierarchy of officers and a department of revenue collection, which kept detailed records of revenues. This department was the most impressive of the administrative machinery evolved by the Cholas for mobilization of resources.

The Temple - The temple was looked upon and functioned as a "superordinate" instrument of the political apparatus from the ninth century. Under the Cholas its role progressively increased and diversified, thereby forging institutional links for territorial sovereignty. This is well illustrated by the imperial temples such as those at Thanjavur and Gangaikondacholapuram. Its economic outreach became phenomenal with a widening orbit through huge temple endowments land & money grants. Gold deposits, merchant interaction through gifts and the luxury trade of larger merchant corporations. Its social function was the integration of various ethnic and professional groups through ritual ranking within the brahmana varna order. Temple administration was in the hands of the Sabha, ur and the Nagaram. In the redistribution of resources, the temple assumed a more direct role than even the brahrmadeya. It is through the temple that the Cholas achieved a greater degree of centralization in the eleventh century, for it broke local ties by virtue of its economy and management of resources across nadu limits. It provided a foothold for the King to intervene in local affairs through royal officers "auditing" or enquiring into temple endowments, the scale of expenses and making reallocations. The temple was in short the symbol of royal authority.

Nagrams - Nagrams was another major tier of administration. It emerged by the ninth century as a market center with a merchant body (nagarattar) administering it. With the growing needs of an expanding agrarian society, such market centers came up in most nadus to serve their exchange requirements as well as those of the brahmadeya and other settlements. The Nadu & nagaram were mutually supportive. The nagaram members ware themselves agriculturists who could channelize their surplus produce into the trade. They became a full-fledged trading community called the

nagarattar. At the same time the nagaram, like the brahmadeya enjoyed a special status, with considerable autonomy vis-a-vis the Nadu. The nagarm, often created or sponsored by the ruling family, had direct revenue arrangements with the King's, government and participated in temple administration. The brahmadeya & nagaram brought the nadus together in a system of unified political organization & economic exchange, thereby assisting in the process of a state synthesis. A network of nagrams emerged between the ninth and twelfth centuries. The royal and political centers, as well as larger commercial centers such as Kanchipuram and Thanjavur, were designated as managarams or great nagarams. This network was further brought into a wider inter-regional exchange due to the revival of South Asian trade by the tenth century involving South India, Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia, and China. The Cholas promoted this trade by undertaking maritime expeditions to Sri Lanka and Sri Vijaya (Sumatra) and sending trade missions to China. They extended their patronage to their merchant organizations by issuing royal charters. for establishing mercantile towns protected by mercenaries.