EHI - 02

7th Part

Block 8 (Unit 32)

Q. Discuss in about ten lines the efforts made by Samudragupta for the expansion of the Gupta empire.

A. An aggressive policy of conquests was adopted by Samudragupta for expansion and consolidation of the Gupta empire. He adopted a different approach to different regions. The Prayagaprasasti says that Samudragupta showed favor to be

Dakshinapatha kings by first capturing them (grahana) and then releasing them (moksha). He let the kings in the South whom he had defeated, rule over their regions. In return, they accepted his suzerainty and paid tributes. Such a policy adopted in relation to the far-flung areas might have paid dividends in solving problems of communication and effective control, hence bringing about stability for the time being. He pursued a completely different policy with regard to the kings of Aryavarta or north India. He not only defeated them but also annexed their territories which became integrated into the Gupta empire. Samudragupta reduced all states in the forest regions to the position of servants. The frontier kingdoms like Samatata (in southeast Bengal), Kamarupa (Assam), Nepal (Nepal) and others and the republican states of the Malavas, Yaudheyas, Madrakas, Abhiras, etc. paid him tributes of all

kinds, carried out his orders and paid him homage. The foreign rulers of north-western India like the later Kushanas and the Saka chief and residents of different island countries including Simhala or Sri Lanka pleased him by "self-surrender, offering (their own) daughters in marriage, and a request for the administration of their own districts and provinces". This means that they remained

independent but their independence had to be approved by Samudragupta.

Q. List five minor powers in north India at the beginning of the fourth century A.D.

A. # Kushana and his successors, in Afghanistan, Kashmir and western Punjab.

# The Madras were located in Punjab

# The Yaudheyas were extremely powerful with their center in present-day Haryana

# the Malavas were located in Rajasthan

# the Nagas who became very powerful in Mathura

Q. Discuss in about ten lines the military campaigns of Chandragupta-11.

A. Chandragupta 2 ascended the throne at a time when there were problems emerging again and he had to lead military campaigns to establish Gupta supremacy once again. He defeated the Saka king Rudrasimha-3 and annexed his kingdom. This brought an end to Saka Kshatrapa rule in western India and added the regions of

Gujarat, Kathiawad and west Malwa to the Gupta empire. Chandra crossed the Sindhu region of seven rivers and defeated Valhikas (identified with Bactria). Chandragupta's also held successful military campaigns against enemies from Vanga (Bengal). On the basis of this evidence, it can be suggested that Chandragupta-I1

was able to extend the frontiers of the Gupta empire to western, north-western and eastern India.

Q. Discuss in about ten lines the factors which brought about the disintegration of the Gupta empire.

A. Huna Invasion - From the Time of Kumaragupta-I the north-west borders had been threatened by the Hunas a Central Asian tribe which was successfully moving in different directions and was establishing pockets of rule in northwestern, northern and western India but we’re successfully beaten however towards the end of the

fifth century A.D. the Huna chief Tormana was able to establish his authority over large parts of western India and in central India. Mihirakula, his son, further extended the dominions. Thus, the Huna attacks caused a major blow to the Gupta authority particularly in northern and western regions of the empire.

Administrative Weaknesses

The policy adopted by the Guptas in the conquered areas was to restore the authority of local chiefs or kings once they had accepted Gupta suzerainty. In fact, no efforts were made to impose strict and effective control over these regions. Hence it was natural that whenever there was a crisis of succession or a weak monarchy

within the Gupta empire these local chiefs would reestablish their independent authority. This created a problem for almost every Gupta King who had to reinforce his authority. The constant military campaigns were a strain on the state treasury. Towards the end of the fifth century A.D. and beginning of sixth century A.D. taking advantage of the weak Gupta emperors, many regional powers re-asserted their authority, and in due course declared their independence. The Guptas issued land grants to the Brahamana donees & in this process surrendered the revenue & administrative rights in favor of the donees. Gupta empire followed the Sarnanta system in which the Samanthas or minor rulers, who ruled as subordinates to the central authority, started to consolidate itself in the Gupta period. This is also believed to be the reason why Gupta's administrative structure became so loose.

Unit 33

Q. Write in about five lines about the revenue administration of Guptas.

A. Land revenue was the main source of the state's income besides the fines. The Gupta kings maintained a regular department for the proper survey and measurement of land as well as for the collection of land revenue. Both Kalidasa and the author of the Narada-Smriti state that one-sixth of the produce should be claimed as the royal revenue. Besides this, there was the Uparikara which was levied on cloth, oil, etc.when taken from one city to another. The organization of traders had to pay a certain commercial tax (Sulka), the non-payment of which resulted in the cancellation of the right to trade and a fine amounting to eight times the original Sulka. The King had a right to forced labor (Visthi), Bali and many other types of contributions. The King's treasury had a right to treasure troves (treasures in the forms of coin-hoards, jewels or other valuable objects, discovered from below the earth accidentally), digging of mines and manufacture of salt.

Q. Write in about ten lines the powers and duties of the King.

A. # It was the King's duty to decide the policy of the state during war and peace. For instance, Samudragupta was prudent enough to reinstate the monarchs of dukshinupurhu in their original kingdoms.

# It was considered a prime duty of the monarch to protect his countrymen from any invasion.

# The King was to lead the army in case of war. This is demonstrated through the campaigns of Samudragupta and Chandragupta-11.

# The King was also expected to support the Brahmanas, Sramanas and all others who needed his protection.

# He was also supposed to venerate the learned and religious people and give them every possible help.

# As the supreme judge he looked after the administration of justice according to religious precepts and existing customs.

# It was the duty of the King to appoint his central and provincial officers.

# The Prayagaprasasti as well as the Apratigha type coins of Kumaragupta-I point to the appointment of a successor to the throne by the reigning King. Thus in the Gupta empire, the King remained the central figure of administration and all powers vested in him. He is the supreme authority and the most powerful.

Q.  Mention the methods adopted for irrigation during this period.

A.  In the Gupta period, various types of land are mentioned in the inscriptions; land under cultivation was usually called Kshetra, Lands not under cultivation were called as Khila, Aprahata, etc., and inscriptions give the impression that uncultivated land was being regularly brought under cultivation. Emphasis was given on improving the irrigation facilities for increasing the cultivation. The Sudarsana reservoir(Tadaga) in Saurashtra in Gujarat which was originally built in the Maurya period and repaired by Rudradaman (middle of the second century A.D.) was one such example. It was

again severely damaged in the time of Skandagupta. Parnadatta, his newly appointed governor of Saurashtra and Parnadatta's son Chakrapalita, undertook the repair of the reservoir during this time. Another method for irrigation was to draw water from wells and supply the water to the fields through carefully prepared channels. In regions like Bengal, rainwater was collected in ponds and other types of reservoirs which was used for cultivation similarly in peninsular India, tank irrigation became gradually the norm. There were thus different systems of irrigation and the role of the state was only marginal in providing irrigation facilities to farmers. The

farmers, of course, depended mainly on rainfall.

Q. Discuss in about five lines the sources which refer to crafts and craftsmen

A. Crafts production covered a very wide range of items. There were items of ordinary domestic use like earthen pots, items of furniture, baskets, metal tools for domestic use and so on; simultaneously a wide variety of luxury items including jewelry made of gold, silver, and precious stones; objects made of ivory; fine clothes of cotton and silk and other costly items had to be made available to the affluent sections of people. Texts like Amarakosha and Brihat Samhita which are generally dated to this period, list many items, give their Sanskrit names and also mention different categories of craftsmen who manufactured them. Another

inscription of the fifth century from Mandasor in western Malwa refers to a guild of silk-weavers who had migrated from south Gujarat and had settled in the Malwa region.

Q. Discuss the changes in the varna system in about ten lines.

A. Varna order was an ideal order and there were many groups in society whose varna identity could never be determined. Real society was different from the ideal society as suggested by the Varna system due to many reasons like each varna was assigned duty and was expected to perform it but it wasn’t the case in reality. The various foreign ruling families of the pre-Gupta period or Greek etc. were given the semi-kshatriya status (vratya Kshatriya) because they could not be considered to be of pure Kshatriya origin: similarly, fictitious origins were thought of for tribal groups

who came to be absorbed into the Brahmanical society. The Dharmasastras also speak of apadharma or conduct to be followed during periods of distress. This means that the varnas take to professions and duties not assigned to them when they found

it necessary to do so. In matters of the profession also the Dharmasastras thus recognized that the real society was different from their ideal society.

Unit 34

Q. List the main minor powers and the regions they ruled in north India in the sixth century A.D.

A. Yasodharman - Yasodharman rose to power in about 528 A.D. and continued to rule till 532 A.D. Two stone pillar inscriptions from Mandasor in Madhya Pradesh dated 543A.D suggests the victories of Yasodharman. The inscription describes him as the victor of all those lands which had not been subdued even by the Guptas.

The Maukharis

The Maukharis were an old family and references to them in Patanjali's work is found. The Maukharis became powerful towards the end of the 5th century A.D. as the Harsha inscription of 554 A.D. mentions the rise of Yajnavarman from Gaya during this period. The Maukharis held sway over modem U.P. and parts of Magadha.

The Later Guptas

From around the middle of the sixth century A.D. till about 675 A.D. the kings who ruled Magadha were known as Magadha Guptas or Later Guptas. The other important states that emerged in the post-Gupta period were those of the:

# Maitras of Valabhi in Gujarat

# Gurjaras in Rajputana and Gujarat

# Gaudas in Bengal

# Varmans in Kamrup (Assam)

# Mana and Sailodbhava families in Orissa.

Q. Write in about ten lines the relation of Harsha with other powers.

A. Harsha ascended the throne of Thaneshwar around 606 A.D. He entered into an alliance with Bhaskarvarman-the king of Pragjyaotisha (Assam) as both had a common enemy in Sasanka, the king of Gauda (Bengal). Both of them jointly conducted campaigns in Bengal and other parts of eastern India. Harsha fought the rulers of Valabhi and Gurjaras in the west, Chalukyas in the Deccan and Magadha and Gauda in the east. The Maitrakas of Valabhi had emerged as a strong power in the Saurashtra region of Gujarat. Harsha's hostilities with Valabhis ended through a matrimonial alliance. The Valabhis remained a strong power during the reign of Harsha. Pulakasin 2, the Chalukya ruler of Badami of Karnataka were not defeated by Harsha. Harsha could not achieve success against Pulakesin 11. Harsha had diplomatic relations with the Chinese for his contemporary T'ang the emperor sent three embassies to his court.

Q. What was the political condition in north India in the post-Harsha period?

A. In the post-Harsha period, many regions of the Indian subcontinent saw the beginnings of stable state structures. These were not all-India empires and they didn’t last long, but they represented the beginnings of regional political structures. In Kashmir, Durlabhavardhan established a dynasty known as Karakota. His grandson Chandrapida checked the entry of the Arabs in Kashmir thus for the first time the functioning of a local state system emerged. In Bengal, the emergence of Pala power from the middle of the eighth century A.D. and its duration for several centuries marked a new phase in the political history of the region. Similarly, in Western India, covering both Rajasthan and Gujarat, emerged many new ruling families like the Gurjara Pratiharas, Guhilas, the Chahamanas and others who came to be considered as different clans of the Rajputs who dominated the political scene of western India for centuries. Thus, the decline of Gupta power and the collapse of Harsha's empire did not mean lead to political anarchy. After the end of these empires, the regional

powers consolidated themselves and played important roles in the history of subsequent periods.

Unit 35

Q. What do you know about the Chalukyas, Pallavas, and Pandyas?

A. From the mid-sixth century A.D., the political scene in the Deccan and south India was dominated by three powers: the Chalukyas of Badami, the Pallavas of Kanchi, and the Pandyas of Madura.

The Chalukyas

The Chalukyas became a sovereign power with Pulakesin-I. He laid foundations of his kingdom by making the hill near Badami in the Bijapur district of Karnataka into a strong, fortress in 543-44 A.D. and performed a horse sacrifice. Kadambas kingdom was annexed and also the Mauryas of Konkan (the coastal strip of Maharashtra)

were subjugated by his successors. With the expeditions of Pulakesin-2, the Chalukyas became the Paramount power in the Deccan as the Western Gangas and the Alupas in the south and the Latas, Malavas, & Gurjaras in the north offered them submission to him. The army of Pulakesin-I1 checked the forces of Harshavardhana on the banks of the Narmada. Pulakesin-I1 also defeated the Vishnukundins of Andhra delta and younger brother Vishnuvardhana started his own kingdom the Chalukyas of Vengi or Eastern Chalukyas, who remained in control of the area for

more than five hundred years.

The Pallavas

The rise of the Pallavas began with Simhavishnu about the middle of tile sixth century A.D. He put an end to the Kalabhra Interregnum in Tandaimandalam (Kanchi Region), and extended his kingdom southward up to the Kaveri delta. He was

succeeded by Mahendravarman-I, who annexed territories in the north up to the river Krishna. Thus by the middle of the seventh century A.D., the Pallavas had set up a powerful regional kingdom in south India. By the early tenth century A.D., the Pallava rule came to an end when Aparajata was defeated by Aditya Chola-I.

The Pandyas

The Pandyas come to light with king Kadungon towards the close of the sixth century A.D. when he suppressed the Kalabhras. The Pandyas ruled in the southernmost districts of Tamilnadu, with the Vaigai river basis as the heartland of the kingdom. They constantly tried to extend their sway over the Kaveri delta in the north and

Cera country (Kerala) in the southwest.

Q. Discuss the nature of conflicts amongst the powers of south India. What role
did the minor kings play in it?
A. This period is marked by frequent wars between the Chalukyas of Badami and
the Pallavas, and between Pandyas and the Pallavas. Hostilities began with the
raid of Chalukyas Pulakesin-11, who defeated Mahendravarman and occupied the
northern part of Pallava kingdom. The Pallavas had to engage in battles with the
Pandyas too. In these conflicts it was always the Pallavas who were the target of
attack. This was not just because they were situated between the Chalukyas and the
Pandyas, but mainly because they were the most prosperous of all. It is significant
that it was always the Chalukyas who attacked the Pallavas and that the Pallavas
concerned themselves mainly with driving them back into their territory. The only
exception was the raid of Narasimhavarman-I into Chalukyan kingdom and his
occupation of its capital. The same is true of the Pandyas, who fought repeatedly
with the Pallavas for the control of the Kaveri delta.
The lesser kings and chieftains took part in the conflict of the regional kingdoms
as subordinate allies of one or the other of these powers.These subordinate allies
shared not only in the plunder but could add new areas to their realm as well.
Q. Highlight the relations' between different categories of rulers.
A. There are two views about the relations between powerful kings, and minor
kings and chieftains. First, it is said that smaller kings and chieftains regarded a big
king, especially the Pallavas, as their overlord on religious grounds. The Pallava kings
used to participate in elaborate religious ceremonies which gave them a high ritual
status. It was this high ritual status that was respected by lesser kings and chiefs. But
this theory isn’t supported by historical evidences .
The second view states that these smaller kings and chieftains as "subordinate ally"
to describe the relation of minor political powers with the major ones.
Q. Discuss the role of local associations in administration.
A. Local administration through the corporate units like Nanadesis, the
Manigramam etc. greatly lightened the burden of the government. It not only gave a
chance to population to air its grievances and problems, but also fixed responsibility
on the people themselves for redressing the grievances and solving the problems.
This strengthened the basis of the state by minimising opposition to it as the
people could not hold the government responsible for these matters.
That is why the Pallava kings never try to encroach upon the functioning of the
local autonomous corporate groups instead they seek to strengthen their own base
by bringing in brahmanas and creating privileged brahmana settlements by making
landgrants to brahmanas, either directly (called brahmadaya or in the name of a
temple (called devadana). These brahmana settlements were created all over the
core areas of the Pallava kingdom. The village assembly of brahmanas was called
sabha or mahasabha which developed the system of governance through
committees. . It became a hallmark of self-government in brahmana settlements in
south India. The sabha managed a number of tasks mostly through these
committees-maintenance of tanks and roads, management of charitable donations

and of temple affairs, and regulation of irrigation rights.