EHI - 4

15th Part

Q.  Urban demography and composition of an urban population during the medieval period                                           

Q.   Write a note on urban life in the Mughal Empire.                 

Q.  Discuss the standard of living, clothing pattern and social life of the urban classes in medieval India.                                    A.  Urban Landscape - 

1) Physical Configuration

         Most of the towns had a fortification wall with one or more gates. The main population of the city lived within these walls. With the expansion of towns at times the cities outgrew their walls. In planned towns markets were properly laid. In others, shops could be found on both sides of the main roads. With shopkeepers living behind these shops or on the first floor of the shops. Most of the towns could boast of a number of markets. Many of these markets specialized in a particular commodity. Names of various areas suggest their specialty for example in Agra-Loha Gali (iron objects), cheenitole (sugar mart), ghallamandi (grain market), dal mandi, sabunkatra (soap market) nil para (indigo market) in Delhi. Jauhri bazar (jewellery), sabzimandi (vegetable mart), churiwala (bangles), etc. Paharganj was a wholesale market for grain. The residential areas of towns called mohalla were often identified by the professional groups that resided there. 

              Another important feature of the town was the presence of sarais which were halting places for merchants or travelers. Even the smallest towns had one. The larger towns like Delhi, Agra, Patna, Lahore, or Ahmedabad had sarais by the dozens. The travelers were provided with amenities including storage space to

stock merchandise. The foreigners visiting the towns were supposed to inform the city administration about their arrival and departure. On the whole, most of the towns lacked any detailed town planning. Except for the major street, other, lanes and by-lanes were congested and muddy. The city had its own administrative machinery and regulations to run the day-to-day administration. 

2) Composition of Population (Urban Classes)

The urban population was not a homogenous one. These can be classified into four broad groups :

i)  Nobles and their retainers, officials of the state and troops;

ii)  Persons engaged in mercantile activities (merchants, Sarraf, brokers, etc.);

iii)  People involved with religious establishments, musicians, painters, poets, physicians, etc., and

iv)  Artisans, menials and workmen of sundry sorts.

               The composition of different categories of people in different towns depended on the nature of towns, i.e., administrative centers, or commercial centers., In the case of imperial headquarters, perhaps the biggest group was that of the retainers & troops of the king and nobles. As most of the big towns were commercial centers of importance, the mercantile community of the towns was quite important. Another important group in a town comprised of people associated with the professions of medicine, learning, literature, art, and music. Generally, the religious and charitable grants were given in the vicinity of towns. Besides, a large number of poets, musicians, physicians also made their abode in towns because here money could be earned or patronage of the king and nobles was available. Artisans; workmen and laborers formed one of the biggest groups in towns having large commercial activities.

3) Urban Demography

The Tabqat-i Akbari (c 1593) says that during Akbar’s period there were around 120 big cities and 3200 small towns. In the 17th century, with the increasing trade and commerce, this number would have grown further. It is estimated that around 15 percent of the total population in Mughal India lived in towns.

Urban life - 

1) Standard of Living - 

              The standard of living in a Medieval city shows a striking contrast. While the'upper strata led a lifestyle akin to the royalty, the urban poor found it difficult to achieve the bare subsistence level.  Middle classes, especially the petty revenue officials, lower rank mansabdars and the physicians appear to be fairly prosperous. However, intellectuals were, in general, poor and depended for their livelihood solely upon their patrons. The nobles and other upper classes in Mughal India led a luxurious lifestyle. 

Clothing

The style of clothing of the middle and upper strata was by and large similar. Both could be distinguished on the basis of the quality of cloth they worn. Men wore drawers (shalwar) and breeches (churidar payjama), and a shirt. In the winter they also wore arcabick (vest stuffed with cotton) and a long loose-fitting coat (qaba). Besides, they put a shawl on shoulders and a patka around the waist and a turban. Women wore a long chadar and a bodice (chdi). In the doab area, lahanga (a long loose skirt) and choli and a long scarf were quite popular. The Muslim ladies usually wore loose drawers, a shirt, and long scarves together with their usual veil. The cloth used was mostly cotton, plain and printed, and silk, plain and striped. 

2) Social Life

The joint family system was common. The woman was subordinate to man. The higher class women observed purdah. The custom of jauhar was almost entirely confined totally among the Rajputs. Their women, in time of despair (during the war, etc.), seeing the imminent defeat, to save their pride, used to set themselves afire. Among the upper-caste Hindus, the practice of Sati or self-immolation was quite common. 

            Both Hindus and Muslims favored an early marriage age for boys and girls. Songs were sung. Marriage was performed wit,h elaborate rites. Nobles and rich merchant spent a huge amount of money on marriages.

            Elaborate ceremonies were performed at the time of death also.

Education

In general, education was beyond the reach of a common woman. But women of the elite class got the opportunity to study. Princesses were taught to read and write. 

3) Entertainment and Festivities

Gambling, elephant fights, chaupar, chandal-mandal, chess, cards, polo, etc., were the sports greatly indulged in by the higher strata. Chaupar playing was very popular among the Hindus, especially the Rajputs. Hunting was the most popular pastime of royalty. The Mughals organized qamargah hunts. 

Festivals and Fairs

Religious festivals & pilgrimages to holy shrines were popular means of amusement. Huge urs celebration was organized at the tomb of the Sufis. Dussehra was popular among the kshatriyas and all agricultural classes. The Kumbha fairs on the Ganga was most famous of all the fairs. 

Music

Big amirs arranged "mushairas" (literary evenings) in their mansions where poets recited their compositions. Singers and musicians performed their recital in the harem every day. Indoor entertainment parties (jashn) were organized which were accompanied by dance and banquet. Humayun introduced the system of river picnics on the Jamuna.

Q.  What were the main features of Sufi philosophy ? Give a brief account of the major Sufi silsilahs.                                         A.  Suhrawardi order- Shaikh Bahauddin Zakaria was the founder of the Suhrawardi order in India. He associated himself with the court and in 1228 Iltutmish appointed him the Shaikh-ul Islam. The saints of the Suhrawardi order hereafter remained in touch with the establishment and actively participated in political activities. The

Suhrawardi order made progress in provinces other than Multan and spread from Uch to Gujarat, Punjab, Kashmir, and even Delhi. 

Firdausiya - Shaikh Sharfuddin Ahmad Yahya developed firdausiya order in the 14th century. He was an ardent believer in Wahdat-ul Wujud.

Chisti - it was introduced into India by Khwaja Muinuddin. The sayings of Muinuddin show that his life's mission was to inculcate piety, humility, and devotion to God. According to him, those who know God avoid mixing with other people and keep silent on matters relating to divine knowledge. After his death, the silsilah made notable progress under his able disciples. The Chishti mystics believed in the spiritual value of music. The disciple of Muinuddin, Khwaja Qutubuddin Bakhtiar Kaki died in a state of ecstasy under the spell of music. He stayed in Delhi and exercised a tremendous influence upon the people. Khwaja Fariduddin Masud was the Khalifa (successor) of Qutbuddin. He kept himself far away from political personalities and avoided contact with rich and powerful people. Shaikh Nizamuddin was his Chief disciple. Though he saw the reigns of seven Sultans of Delhi, he never visited the court of any one of them. The liberal outlook of the Shaikh, as well as his delight in music, caused him to be denounced by the orthodox Ulema. Even after his death in 1325, the Shaikh commanded tremendous respect, and even now he is regarded to be a great spiritual force. After the death of Baba Farid, the Chishti order was divided into two main subdivisions-Nezamia and Sabiria.

Qadiri order - It was introduced by Shah Niamatullah and Makhdum Mohammad Jilani towards the middle of the 15th century. The Qadiri order found a great devotee in Prince Dara Shukoh who visited a saint of this order, Miyan Mir (1550-1635), at Lahore along with Shah Jahan and was much impressed by his saintly personality.

The Naqshbandi order - It was introduced into India by Khwaja Baqi Billah (1563-1603). From the beginning, the mystics of this order laid stress upon the observance of the law (Shariat) and had emphatically denounced all innovations which had spoiled the purity of Islam. Thus, it may be regarded as a reaction to the challenging ideas of the upholders of Wahdat-ul Wujud. 

Q.  Analyse the chief features of Mughal architecture.                  Q.  Discuss the growth of Mughal architecture from Akbar's to Shahjahan's reign. 

A.  Mughal style of architecture took a concrete form during the reign of Akbar, yet the basic principles of Mughal architecture were provided by Babur & Humayun, the two predecessors of Akbar. 

Babar - The only standing structures of Babur's reign are two mosques, built-in 1526, at Panipat and Sambhal. But both these structures are commonplace and possess no architectural merit. Babur's secular works mainly comprise the laying of gardens and pavilions.

Humayun -The surviving buildings of Humayun's reign have the same inconsequential character as that of Babur. However, two mosques from among several other buildings erected during the first phase of his reign survive. One of these lies in ruinous condition at Agra. The other is at Fatehabad (Hissar). But both these structures are devoid of any architectural distinctiveness much in the same manner as the mosques of Babur. Humayun's return to Delhi in 1555 was short-lived. There are in fact no notable buildings of this time. However, Humayun's tomb as a structure was inspired by the Persian culture imbibed by Humayun during his exile. This building is, in fact, a landmark in the development of the Mughal style of architecture. The construction began in 1564 after Humayun's death under the patronage of his widow, Hamida Bano Begum. 

Akbar - Akbar's reign can be taken as the formative period of Mughal architecture. It represents the finest example of the fusion of Indo-Islamic architecture.

Chief features- 

The architecture of the reign of Akbar represents the encouragement of the indigenous techniques and selective use of the experiences of other countries. The chief elements of the style of architecture that evolved under Akbar's patronage can be listed thus:

a)  the buildings mainly used red sandstone as the building material;

b) widespread use of the trabeated construction;

c)  the arches used mainly in decorative form rather than in structural form;

d)  the dome was of the 'Lodi' type, sometimes built hollow but never technically of the true double order;

e)  the shafts of the pillars were multifaceted and the capitals of these pillars invariably took the form of bracket supports; and

f)  the decoration comprised of boldly carved or inlaid patterns complemented by brightly colored patterns on the interiors.

            Akbar's building projects can be divided into two main groups, each representing a different phase. The first group comprised buildings of a fork and a few palaces mainly at Agra, Allahabad, and Lahore. One of the earliest building projects of Akbar's reign was the construction of a fort at Agra, conceived actually as a fortress-palace. The second group related basically to the construction of his new capital Fath-pur Sikri. The second phase of Akbar's architectural scheme coincides with the conception and creation of a ceremonial capital for the Empire at Sikri, nearly forty kilometers west of Agra. The new capital was named Fatehpur. It is one of the most remarkable monuments in India. In its design and layout, Fatehpur Sikri is a city where the public areas like the courtyards, Diwan-i Am and Jami Masjid form a coherent group around the private palace apartments.

Architecture Under Jahangir and Shah Jahan -

New Features - 

In the sphere of the building art, Jahangir and Shah Jahan's reigns were an age of marble. The place of red sandstone was soon taken over by marble in its most refined form. This dictated significant stylistic changes which have been listed below:

a)  The arch adopted a distinctive form with foliated curves, usually with nine cusps;

b)  Marble arcades of engrailed arches became a common feature;

c)  The dome developed a bulbous form with the stifled neck. Double domes became very common;

D)  Inlaid patterns in colored stones became the dominant decorative form; and

e)  In the buildings, from the latter half of the Jahangir's reign, a new device of inlay decoration called pietra dura was adopted. In this method, semi-precious stones such as lapis lazuli, onyx, jasper, topaz, and comelian were embedded in the marble in graceful foliations.

             The account of the major buildings of this period begins with a remarkable structure, that is, the tomb of Akbar, located at Sikandra, eight kilometers from the Agra on Delhi road. Jahangir was a great patron of the art of painting. His love of flowers and animals as reflected in the miniature paintings of his period, made him a great lover of the art of laying out gardens rather than building huge monuments. Some of the famous Mughal gardens of Kashmir such as the Shalimar Bagh and the Nishat Bagh stand as testimony to Jahangir's passion. 

            In contrast to Jahangir, his son Shah Jahan was a prolific builder. His reign was marked by extensive architectural work in his favorite building material the marble.

Some of these were:

a)  the palace-forts, e.g, the Lal Qila at Delhi;

b) the mosques, e.g. the Moti Masjid in the Agra Fort and the Jami Masjid at Delhi;&

c) the garden-tombs, e.g., the Taj Mahal. 

               The Lal Qila is a regular rectangle with the north wall following the old course of the Yamuna river. There are two gate-ways -- the Delhi and Lahore Gates, and massive round bastions at regular intervals along the wall. 

               The Tai Mahal is a square building with deep alcoved recesses on each side and its four comers beveled to form an octagon. The decorative features of the building consist of calligraphy aid inlay work in the exterior and pietra dura in the interior. Marble, the main building material, is of the finest quality brought from Makrana quarries near Jodhpur.