8th Part
Q. Give a detailed account of the expansion of the Delhi Sultanate under the Khaljis.
A. West And Central
The expansion of the Delhi Sultanate started under the reign of Allauddin Khaliji. After consolidating his position and firmly establishing himself at Delhi, he undertook the first expedition in the region of Gujarat in 1299 as he was attracted by the wealth of Gujarat due to flourishing trade. After plundering Gujrat, the administrative control of Gujarat was entrusted to Alp Khan as governor. In the Western region, the next kingdom to fall was that of Malwa in 1305, It was an extensive region and was governed from the capital Mandu by Rai Mahalak Dev. The province of Malwa, after its fall, was given for administration to Ainul Mulk who was known to have soon brought Ujjain, Dhar, and Chadderi, too, under his control. Malwa was followed by Siwana, a town situated some eighty kilometers to the south-west of Jodhpur and the administration was given to Kamaluddin Gurg. In the same year (1309), Jalor was attacked and its ruler Kanhar Dev was killed in the battle and the fort annexed to the Sultanate under the control of Karnaluddin Gurg.
North West and North
Suppressing the prospects of revolt by the surviving member of Jalaluddin's family who had fled to Multan, Allauddin sent an expedition there thus consolidating Multan with Delhi Sultanate. In 1300, Alauddin sent Ulugh Khan to march against Ranthambhor ruled by Rai Harnir. Nusrat Khan, then posted at Awadh, joined Ulugh Khan. The Imperial army captured Jhain on the way and then laid a siege. The siege lasted for over six months and Ranthambhor was won as Hamir Dev died fighting. In pursuance of the policy, Alauddin attacked the kingdom of Chittor in 1303 and after several attempts succeeded as the ruler surrendered and Khizr Khan was assigned the governorship of, the territory. By the end of the first decade of Alauddin's rule, the frontiers of the Delhi Sultanate had expanded to cover almost the whole of north, west and central India.
Deccan and Southward
The next military campaign in the Deccan was planned by Alauddin against Rai Ram Chandra Dev of Devagiri in 1306-7. An immediate cause for this was an unduly long delay in sending the annual tribute to Delhi in 1296. The Deccan campaign was given to Malik Kafur, while directions were sent to Ainul Mulk Multani and Alp Khan for providing assistance. Rai Ram surrendered and Devagiri became protectorate paying annual tributes besides parting with hefty wealth. The acquisition of wealth from southern kingdoms & not actual territorial annexation seems to have been the prime motive in sending these expeditions. Accordingly, in October 1309 be imperial army began its southward march under the command of Malik Kafur. Enroute a surprise assault was made by Malik Kafur on the fort at Sirpur (in Adilabad District). The nobles of Sirpur fled to Rai Rudra Dev of Warangal and the fort was captured by the imperial army. By the middle of January 1310, the marching army had reached the suburbs of Warangal. On 14 February 1310, Kafur attacked the fort. The war came to an end because Rai Rudra Dev decided to surrender. He agreed to part with his treasures & pay an annual tribute as a token of submission. The province was not territorially annexed but accorded the status of a protectorate. Buoyed by the success at Warangal, a military expedition was now launched further south of Warangal against Dwarasamudra under Malik Kafur. The fort was besieged in February 1311 and was surrendered the next day by Ballala Dev, the ruler of Dwarasamudra. Encouraged by his success in Dwarasamudra, Malik Kafur decided to move further South to Madura, the capital of the Pandyas and captured it without resistance. Alauddin's Deccan and southward campaigns were aimed at achieving two basic objectives:
(i) formal recognition of the authority of Delhi Sultan over these regions and
(ii) the amassing of maximum wealth at the minimal loss of life.
This is how the Delhi Sultanate expanded under Khalji's.
Q. Trace the development of the Iqta system under the Delhi Sultans.
A. In the early 13th century, the Turkish rulers of Delhi, in order to consolidate their position made revenue assignments i.e Iqta in lieu of cash to their nobles. The assignees who were known as rnuqti and wali collected revenue from these areas and after deducting their own expenses and paying for the troops maintained by them and sent the surplus amount to the center. lqta is an Arabic word and the institution had been in force in the early Islamic world as a form of reward for services to the State. It was used in the Caliphate administration as a way of financing operations and paying civil and military officers. The grant of iqta did not imply a right to the land nor was it hereditary. These revenue assignments were transferable, the iqta-holder being transferred from one region to another every three or four years. The assignments could be large (a whole province or apart). Assignments even to nobles carried administrative, military and revenue collecting responsibilities. Thus, the provincial administration was headed by the muqti or wuli. He had to maintain an army composed of horsemen and foot soldiers.
In the iqta system, the Delhi Sultans combined the two functions of revenue collection and distribution without immediately endangering the unity of political structure. The iqta was a territorial assignment and its holder was called the muqti or the wali. the iqta was a revenue assignment that the muqti held at the pleasure of Sultan. The muqti was entitled to collect in a proper manner the land tax and other taxes due to the Sultan, he had no further claims on the person, women, and children, land or other possessions of the cultivators. The muqti had certain obligations to the Sultan the chief being the maintenance of troops and furnishing them a call to the Sultan. The iqta was a transferable charge and the transfers of iqtas were frequent.
In the early years of the foundation of the Delhi Sultanate, neither the revenue income of these assignments was known nor the size of the contingent of the assignee was fixed. Certain modifications and mild attempts at introducing central control to some-extent were made by Balban (1266-86) when he appointed a khwaja (accountant) with each muqti: which implies that the Sultanate now was trying to find out the actual income of the iqta and muqti's expenditure.
The real interventional in the iqta administration came under Alauddin Khalji. The central finance department perhaps prepared some sort of an estimated revenue income from each iqta. The audit was stringent, punishments severe transfers frequent and enhancements (taufir) were often made in the estimated revenue income of the iqta on various pretexts.
Ghiyasuddin Tughluq(1320-25) introduced some moderation. The enhancements in the estimated revenue income by the central finance ministry was not to be more than 1/10 or 1/11th annually. The muqtis were allowed to keep 1/10th to 1/20th in excess of their sanctioned salaries. The attempt at center intervention reached its climax during the time of Muhammad Tughluq (1325-51). In several cases, a walk and an Amir was appointed to the same territory. There was no attempt to restore central control by the successors of Feroz Tughlaq. Under the Lodis (1451-1526), the administrative charges and revenue assignments were combined together and these were no more called iqta but were simply called sarkars and Parganas.
================================================================================================
250 words
Q Discuss in brief the factors responsible for the Turkish conquest of India.
A. Two major factors were- the prevailing socio-political system in India and her military preparedness as against the Turks.
After the fall of the Gurjara-Pratihara empire, no single state took its place. Instead, there arose small independent powers like Gahadavalas in Kannauj, Parmaras in Malwa, Chalukyas in Gujarat, Chauhans in Ajmer, Tomars in Delhi, Chandellas in Bundelkhand, etc. Far from being united, they tended to operate within the confines of small territories and were in a state of perpetual internal conflicts. The lack of centralized power was an important factor in emasculating the strength and efficiency of the armed forces. Each military contingent was under the command of its immediate overlord/chief and not that of the king. Thus, the army lacked the 'Unity of Command'. Besides, since only a few castes and clans took the military profession, the bulk of the population was excluded from military training. This made the general population of the country totally detached from the defense of the country; when the Turks came, they found that Indian masses hardly came to the rescue of their kings. The concept of physical pollution (Chhut) also hampered military efficiency since it made the division of labor impossible; the soldiers had to do all their work on their own, from fighting to the fetching of water. Unlike Indians, the Turks were not divided into castes that were exclusive of each other. Another important reason for the success of the Turks was their superior military technology and the art of war. These nomads from the steppes could be credited with introducing the age of the horse'. The Turks used iron stirrup and horse-shoes that reinforced their striking power and the stamina of the cavalry, while horse-shoes provided greater mobility to the horse, stirrup gave the soldiers a distinct advantage.
Q. Discuss the nature of the conflict between the nobility and Delhi Sultans.
A. After the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate, more and more areas were conquered and brought under the Central control. A large alien territory had to be pacified and governed and the ruling class had to be maintained and sustained. The early Turkish ruling class was very much in the'nature of a co-sharer of political and financial powers with the Sultans. In the beginning, the nobles were independent in distant areas of the conquered territories where they were sent by the Centre as governors. The latter was designated muqti or wali and their territories were known as iqtas. The muqtis or iqta-holders were required to furnish military assistance to the Sultan in times of need, apart from maintaining law and order in and collecting the revenue from their iqta. These revenue assignments were generally non-hereditary and transferable. In fact, it was through the institution of iqta that the Sultan was able to control the nobles. The muqti collected land revenue from the peasants of his territory and defrayed there from his own salary as well as that of his soldiers. The demand to send the excess amounts to the Sultan was symbolic of the trend towards centralization. Thus Nobles became gradually very powerful, The Sultans needed the support of the nobility to establish and maintain themselves in power. The Turkish nobles played an important part in elevating Sultans to the throne and supporting contenders to the throne. This created different centers of power which are the major conflict between the Sultans and the nobility. There were also incidents of rebellions in which the muqtis utilize and appropriated the resources of their areas, to rebel or to make a bid for the throne. The nobles sought to emphasize their exclusiveness and their
monopoly to rule thus challenging the rule of Sultans.
Q. Write a short note on the growth of music under the Sultanate period.
A. The 14th century is the most important period in the history of the Delhi Sultanate from the point of view of music, That music in some form was practiced in the courts of the early Sultans but the history of music during this period suffers from the lack of documentation. The courtly revels included dancing and singing of Persian and Hindi songs by beautiful girls. But it was Amir Khusrau who has left an enduring mark on the music not only of the Sultanate but of India as a whole. Amir Khusrau was the disciple of the great sun saint Shaikh Nizamuddin Aulia of Delhi. He was also the court poet of Alauddin Khalji who was himself very fond of music. The genius of Amir Khusrau in the sphere of music was mainly utilized in innovating new compositions as well as in assimilating different forms of music prevalent in his time. He is credited with having introduced :
# the qawwali mode of singing into the countryside for the first time.
# several of our modem rags like Zilaph, Sazgiri, and Sarparda, etc., produced by combining Persian and Indian tunes.
# Khayal form of singing by abandoning the traditional dhrupad.
# a new musical instrument called sitar by combining the old Indian vina and the Iranian tambura.
# modifications in the conventional percussion instrument mridang to bifurcate it into two and call them tabla.
The changes introduced by Amir Khusrau had far-reaching social consequences in bringing together people of two divergent creeds while contributing immensely to music during the Sultanate period.
Q. Discuss with examples the salient features of architecture during the Sultanate period.
A. Some of the salient features of architecture during the Sultanate period were -
1) Arch and Dome - the incidence of masonry building including civilian housing in towns increases significantly after the 13th century. This was primarily possible due to the use of lime-mortar as the basic cementing material. The building of true arch required stones or bricks to be laid in the shape of a curve and bound together firmly by good binding material. The result of the introduction of the new technique was that the pre-Turkish forms like lintel and beam and corbelling were replaced by true arches and vaults and the spired roofs (Shikhar) by domes. In India, the pointed form of Arches was frequently used. In the 14th century, another variant of the pointed form the four-centered arch was introduced by the Tughluqs in their buildings.lt remained in vogue till the end of the Sultanate.
2) Building Material - In the masonry work stone has been used abundantly. The foundations are mostly of rough and small rubble or of river boulders wherever it is available while the superstructure is of dressed stone or roughly shaped coarsed stonework. However, in either case, the buildings were plastered all over. The material commonly used for plastering buildings was gypsum. Lime-plaster was reserved for places that needed to be secured against the leakage of - water, such as roofs, indigo-vats, canals, drains, etc. In the later period, i.e. around the 15th century, when highly finished stucco work became common, gypsum mortar was preferred for plasterwork on the walls and the ceiling
3) Decoration - Decorative art in the Islamic buildings served the purpose of concealing the structure behind the motifs rather than revealing it. The elements of decoration were, in most cases, limited to:
a) calligraphy b) Geometry and c) foliation
It was by their manipulation that a rich and sumptuous effect was obtained in the Sultanate buildings. No one type of decoration was reserved for a particular type of building These pan-Islamic decorative pieces were used for all kinds of buildings in the Delhi Sultanate. Calligraphy is an important element of decorative art in the buildings of this period. The Quranic sayings are inscribed on buildings in an angular, sober and monumental script. They may be found in any part of the buildings like frames of the doors, ceilings, wall panels, niches, etc., and in a variety of materials like stone, stucco, and paintings.
Q. Who were Samantas? What role did they play in the politics of 8th to 12th century?
A. Samantas were the land donor beneficiaries. They have fiscal and administrative rights, including those of policing and administration of criminal law and justice over the land under them. land grants created a landed aristocracy between the King and the cultivators. The Samantas in return paid regular tributes to the king, comply with imperial orders and make attendance at the imperial court on ceremonial occasions, administering justice, military obligations, etc. The territories over which Samantas have political control wasn’t static. The elevation of their position depended on the participation of Samantas in several battles on behalf of their overlord. On the basis of the services rendered these Samantas who were feudal lords were given the titles of nayaka, samanta, samnntadhipati or mahasamanta , mandalika, mahamandaleshvara, etc. These Samantas were also assigned bureaucratic positions during this time period. Local landlords or chieftains performed the role of integrators when they derived their administrative and financial powers from their overlords and paid tributes and performed various other obligations to them. However, the same landlords or Samantas became real breakers and wreckers when they lorded over peasants and artisans unmindful of overlords concern. They acted as an autonomous power within their territory even though the degree of autonomy varied from region to region. If the central government became weak the Samantas used to be practically independent and in such a situation they could extract their own terms for supporting the fortunes of their titular overlord. Their position became still more strong if there was a war of succession. They could then take sides and try to put their nominee on the imperial throne thus playing the role of the kingmakers. On such occasions, they could settle their old scores by dethroning their overlord and imposing their own terms on the new successor. Rashtrakuta Dhruva, Amoghavarsha-I and Amoghavarsha-II owned their thrones to a considerable degree to the support of their Samantas. These Samantas plays vital role politically and militarily during 8th to 12th century. A tilt in the balance of loyalty of the Samantas brought about the disintegration of even long existent power structures. The dramatic fall of the mighty Rashtrakuta empire can be noted as an example. In 967 A.D. Rashtrakutas under Krishna-III was the masters of all the territories to the South of the Narmada. Only six years later, with the overthrow of his nephew Karkka by their Chalukya feudatory Taila in 973 the empire of the Rashtrakutas fell and remained only in memory.
================================================================================================
100 words
i) Sharqis of Jaunpur -
Malik Sarwar, a noble of Feroz Shah Tughluq, took full advantage of the succession tussle among the sons of Feroz and rose to the high position of wazir under Sultan Muhammad Shah (1390-94). Malik Sarwar got the charge of the eastern districts along with the title of Sultan-us Sharq. During the invasion of Taimur, he declared the independence of Jaunpur. Mubarak Shah Sharqi (1399-1401)was the successor of Sarwar who is succeeded by Ibrahim Shah Sharqi (1401-40). He expanded the territories of the kingdom by taking Kanauj in 1406, Kalpi in 1414 and subduing Ganesh ruler of Bengal in 1414. The Delhi Sultan Muhammad Shah was forced to sue for peace when Ibrahim Shah attacked Delhi in 1437. Ibrahim's energetic zeal and his successes increased the prestige of Jaunpur and earned him the title Shiraz-i Hind. He was succeeded by Mahmud Sharqi (1440 54), Muhammad Sharqi (1457- 58) and Husain Sharqi (1458-1505), Bahlol Lodi, annexed Jaunpur and ended Sharqi era.
iii) Irrigation technology during the Sultanate period A. Agriculture was generally dependent upon natural irrigation, that is, rains and floods. Ponds and tanks received this water which was used for irrigation. Water channels formed by inundation, too, served the same purpose. But the most important controlled source was the water of the wells which was drawn through different irrigation methods and devices. Delhi Sultans took interest in canal irrigation. The Delhi Sultans themselves got the canals cut for irrigation. Ghiyasuddin Tughluq (1320-25) is reported to be the first Sultan to dig canals. But f he cutting of canals in a much bigger way was undertaken by Feroz Tughluq (1351-88),. Feroz Tughluq cut two canals from the river Yamuna carrying them to Hissar. one from the Kali river in the Doab joining the Yamuna near
Delhi; one each from the Sutlej {nd the Ghaggar. Certainly, it was the biggest canal network in India till the 19th century. Canal irrigation helped greatly in the extension of cultivation in eastern Punjab. As a result of abundance water available, peasants in eastern Punjab raised two harvests (Kharif and rabi) where only one was possible earlier.
No comments:
Post a Comment