Block 1 (Unit 1)
Q. Discuss the physical features responsible for the rise of Magadha.
Q. Discuss in about five lines the various kinds of pottery and the period it is associated with.
A. Pottery, because of its indestructible quality, helps an identifying mark of a culture and an important means of archaeological classification. Different cultures are identified by their pottery. We have the Ochre-Coloured Pottery Ware (OCP) which is dated earlier than 1000 B.C., the Painted Grey Ware (PGW) which roughly dated between 800-400 B.C., the Black and Red Ware (BRW) which lies in between the two and the Northern Black Polished (NBP) Ware which is dated between 500-100 B.C. The first three pottery types are basically encountered in the Indo-Gangetic divide and the upper Ganga valley, including the Doab. The Northern Black Polished Ware (NBP) has its center of origin in the middle Gangetic plain and spread out into Central India and the Deccan during the Mauryan period.
Q. Discuss in about ten lines the factors which hindered the political unification of the Indian sub-continent.
A. The development of strong regional personalities; strength of regional personalities; strength of regional forces etc. were major impediments for the unification of the Indian subcontinent .' The difference between regions may be explained in terms of :
# geography
# the manner and period of the spread of material culture, and
# the other important historical forces such as population, technology, social
the organization, communications, etc.
A combination of these factors helped in the shaping and development of the personality of the regions.
Owing to the development of distinct and strong regional personalities and the strength of regional forces the Indian sub-continent was never completely politically united. Some regions owing to their inner strength tried to expand and attain pan-Indian status with limited success. The Mauryas, Tughlaqs, Mughals and the British provided a semblance of political unity. However, none of them succeeded in imposing political unity on all the geographic units and culture areas, though the British came very close to it. Central India and the extreme end of Peninsular India have always remained outside the ambit of any strong, expansive pan-Indian power. Two geographical impediments were the Vindhyas that separate North India and the Deccan peninsula and Aravalis range also working as another frontier line.
Unit 3
Q. Which period of Social evolution represents the hunting-gathering stage :
a) Palaeolithic Age
b) Mesolithic Age
C) Palaeolithic and Mesolithic Age
d) Neolithic Age
A. Palaeolithic and Mesolithic Age
Q. Pleistocene Period was :
a) Very cold
b) Very warm
c) Temperature was laid
d) Very dry
A. Very Cold
Q. Palaeolithic Culture has been divided into three phases on the ba& of :
a) Change in the climate
b) The nature of stone tools.
c) Faunal remains
d) Nature of stone tools and change in climate and faunal remains
A. Nature of stone tools and change in climate and faunal remains
Q. The Mesolithic tools are primarily:
a) Handaxe and cleaver
b) Cleaver, Chopper and Chopping tools
c) Blade, Core, Point, and Lunate &
d) Chopping tool and flake
A. Blade, Core, Point, and Lunate
Q. Mesolithic sites have been reported from:
a) The river Kothsri
b) The river Tapti
c) Godavari delta
d) The rivers Kothari, Tapti and Godavari delta
A. The rivers Kothari, Tapti and Godavari delta
Q. Which one of the following statements is most appropriate?
a) The subsistence pattern of Mesolithic people was based on the hunting of animals
b) gathering of wild fruits and seeds
c) hunting of animals and gathering of wild fruits
d) surplus food pr4uction
A. hunting of animals and gathering of wild fruits
Q. What do the Mesolithic tools and paintings suggest in terms of subsistence pattern and social organization?
A. The diet of the people during the Mesolithic Age included both meat and vegetable food. The remains of fish, tortoise, hare, mongoose, porcupine, deer and nilgai have been found from different Mesolithic sites. Besides hunting and fishing, the Mesolithic people also collected wild roots, tubers, fruits, honey, etc. and these constituted important elements in the overall dietary pattern. The plant food seems to have been more easily available than the hunted animal food as the tools used were small, not ideal for hunting.
The paintings and engravings found at the rock shelters which the Mesolithic people used to give us a considerable idea about the social life and economic activities of Mesolithic people. Sites like Bhimbetka, Adamgarh, Pratapgarh, and Mirzapur are rich in Mesolithic art and paintings. Hunting, food-gathering, fishing, and other human activities are reflected in these paintings and engravings. Bhimbetka is extremely rich in paintings. The paintings and engravings depict activities like sexual union, childbirth, rearing of a child, and burial ceremony. All these indicate that during
the Mesolithic period, the social organization had become more stable than in paleolithic times.
Unit 4
Q. Discuss in about 10 lines the main characteristics of the Neolithic stage of culture.
A. The domestication of plants and animals has been considered as one of the main characteristic features of the Neolithic stage of culture. Some other characteristics of Neolithic culture were -
# Practice of agriculture
# Domestication of animals
# Grinding and polishing of stone tools, and also
# The manufacture of pottery.
The neolithic stage represents a culture of the pre-metal stage where the inhabitants had assured the supply of food by the cultivation of cereals and domestication of animals and led a sedentary life. However, Ground stone tools remain the most essential
characteristics of Neolithic culture.
Domestication of plants and animals led to:
# the emergence of village communities based on sedentary life,
# the beginnings of agriculture technology, and
# greater control over nature by the exploitation of natural resources
Q. According to Gordon Childe, Neolithic culture represents a .self sufficient (dependent/self-sufficient) food-producing economy.
ii) Ground stone (Ground stone/Copper) tools remain the essential characteristic of
Neolithic culture.
iii) Jericho is the earliest known village with a mud fortification (water tank/mud fortification).
iv) Catal Huyuk was a large (large/small) village in Turkey (Turkey/Iran).
Q. What do the finds of pottery, ground tools, and mud hutments, etc. indicate in terms of development in human society?
A. The neolithic phase represents the evolution of human society from hunter-gatherer into a sedentary farmer. The origins of agriculture and beginnings of domestication of animals led to the establishment of villages and self-sufficiency of food grains. This was a revolutionary transformation from nomadic life to settled life. This led to the beginning of village settlements with mud hutments, manufacturing of pottery and manufacturing of new types of tools for hunting, now they were polished to agriculture.
Human communities entered a new stage of culture when, instead of depending entirely on the resources of nature for survival, they started producing their own food by cultivating cereals like barley, wheat, and rice and started domesticating some species of animals-both for supplies of milk and meat as well as for harnessing their labor for various purposes. Domestication of plants and animals led to:
# the emergence of village communities based on sedentary life,
# the beginnings of agriculture technology, and
# greater control over nature by the exploitation of natural resources.
Well, all these indicate a process during which human beings were. moving from simple to complex societies; Division of labor: advances in technology; need-based inventions, etc. Were associated with this time.
Block 2 (Unit 5)
Q. Write ten lines on the geographical features of the early Harappan Civilization.
A. The areas of present-day Pakistan and North-West India formed the core region of the Harappan civilization. These areas are characterized by dry weather and scanty rainfall. However, there are variations among these areas. Whereas the areas of Punjab and Sindh are dominated by the alluvial plains of the Indus river system, the areas of Baluchistan are characterized by steep hills. This area has been inhabited by another set of people also, namely pastoral nomads. These pastoral nomads with their herds of sheep, goats, and cattle kept shifting from uplands to low lands in search of pastures for their herd. These hilly regions are fractured by many passes, like those of Khyber, Gomal and Bolan. These have acted as highways of traffic for nomads, merchants, warriors and various groups of people.
Q. How did different areas of the early Harappan period evolve into a civilization?
A. There were similarities found in the cultural traditions of diverse agricultural communities living in & around the Indus regions in the Early Harappan period. Although distinct regional traditions emerged among the small agricultural settlements the areas of Baluchistan, Sind, Punjab, and Rajasthan yet the use of similar kinds of potteries, representations of a horned deity & finds of terracotta mother goddesses show the way to the emergence of a unifying tradition and a civilization. Many factors that resulted in the evolution of the Harappa civilization were the developments that took place over a period of nearly three thousand years. Better Agriculture Technology and production Cultivators colonized the alluvial plains of the Indus during this period. These communities were using tools of copper, bronze, and stone. They were using plough and wheeled transport for the greater productivity of labor. The Indus people reared cattle which gave them better
possibilities of harnessing animal power for transportation and cultivation. This better use of technology increased agricultural production thus bringing in prosperity and supporting a greater population. The increasingly efficient technology and the exploitation of the fertile plains of the Indus increased grain production. larger agricultural surpluses lead to an increase in population. At the same time trading contacts established with distant communities of Mesopotamia etc by the richer section of the society increased the trade. The larger surpluses led to the increase of non-farming specialization thus, village priest could become the part of a clan of priests spread over the entire region. Similarily, metallurgists, potters, and craftsmen came into prominence. The improvements in transportation facilitated trade and better unification. At the same time, a gradual unification too took place in the pottery tradition. In the 'Early Harappan' period a particular kind of pottery first
identified in Kot Diji was spread over almost the entire area of Baluchistan, Punjab, and Rajasthan. In the backdrop of these processes of technological and ideological unification emerged the Harappan Civilization.
Unit 6
Q. Discuss the geographical location of the important centers of Harappan Civilization
A. Some important centers of Harappan Civilization were -
Harappa - It is located on the bank of the Ravi in Western Punjab. It is one of the major cities of the civilization, and it was located in the midst of some important trade routes which are still in use. These routes connected Harappa with Central Asia, Afghanistan and Jammu. Harappa's pre-eminent position was linked to its ability to procure exotic items from faraway lands. The ruins of the city cover a circuit of about 3 miles. In Harappa, a substantial section of the population was engaged in activities other than food production. These activities could relate to administration, trade, craftwork or, religion. Since these people were not producing foo themselves, it was procured from nearby villages.
Mohenjodaro
Mohenjodaro, located in the Larkana district of Sind on the bank of the river Indus is the largest site of the Harappan Civilization. Most of the information regarding the town planning, housing, seals & sealings of this Civilization comes from Mohenjodaro. Excavations show that people lived here for a very long time and went on building and rebuilding houses at the same location. As a result of this, the height of the remains of the building and the debris is about seventy-five feet. Ever since the time
of occupation, there were regular floods at Mohenjodaro. These floods caused deposition of alluvial soil.
Kalibangan
The settlement of Kalibangan is located in Rajasthan along the dried-up bed of the river Ghaggar. This area had the largest concentration of the Harappan settlements. Kalibangan has yielded evidence for the existence of Pre-Harappan and Harappan habitations. It shows significant variation from Harappan in the sphere of religious beliefs. Some scholars have suggested that Kalibangan might have been part of the 'Eastern Domain' of the Harappan Civilization. They give evidence of the presence of distinct local traditions in pottery along with the Harappan pottery. Kalibangan might
have been a mediator between the Harappan cultural zone & the eastern provinces.
Lothal
In Gujarat settlements such as Rangapur, Surkotada & Lothal have been discovered. Lothal is located in the coastal flats of the Gulf of Cambay. This place seems to have been an outpost for sea-trade with contemporary West Asian societies. It's excavator S.R. Rao claims to have discovered a dockyard here.
Sutkagen-Dor
Sutkagen-Dor is located near the Makran coast which is close to the Pakistan-Iran border. At present, the settlement is land-locked in dry inhospitable plains.
Q. Discuss the material characteristics of the Harappan Civilization
A. Some of the material characteristics of Harappan Civilization were -
Town-Planning - There was uniformity in town planning in Harappan towns. Each town is divided into 2 parts. In one part was a raised citadel where the rulers were staying, in the other part of the town lived the ruled and the poor. The settlements of Harappa, Mohenjodaro, and Kalibangan show certain uniformities in their planning. These cities were divided into a citadel on the west side and a
lower town on the eastern side of the settlement. The citadel was built on a high podium of mud brick. The citadel seems to have contained large structures which might have functioned as administrative or ritual centers. The lower city contained residential areas. In Mohenjodaro and Harappa the citadel was surrounded by a brick wall. At Kalibangan both the citadel and the lower city were surrounded by a wall, streets ran from north to south in the lower city and cut at right angles. In
Harappa and Mohenjodaro baked bricks were used for buildings. Harappans were using baked and unbaked bricks of standard size. This shows that it was not the individual house owners who made their own bricks, but that brick making was organized on a large scale. Similarly, cities like Mohenjodaro showed excellent I arrangements for sanitation.
Pottery - Most of Harappan pottery is plain, but a substantial part is treated with a red slip and black painted decoration. The painted decorations consist of horizontal tines of varied thickness, leaf patterns, scales, chequers, latticework, palm and pipal trees. Birds, fishes, and animals are also shown. Among the notable shapes found in the Harappan pottery are a pedestal, dishes, goblets, cylindrical vessels perforated all over and various kinds of bowls.
Tools and Implements
The tools and implements used by the Harappans also show a striking degree of uniformity in designs and in the technique of production. They were using tools made of copper, bronze, and stone. The basic tools types were flat axe, chisels, knives, spearheads and arrowheads for the copper and bronze implements. In the later stages of Civilization, they were also using daggers, knives and flat tangs. They were familiar Hooks for fishing with the techniques of casting bronze and copper. Stone tools were also in common use. They were produced on a large scale in factory sites like Sukkur in Sind and then sent to various urban centers.
Arts and Crafts
Works of art give us an insight into how society relates itself to its surroundings. There are many art pieces discovered from Harappan civilization, prominent among them were - the bronze dancing nude figure discovered in Mohenjodaro, The two little toy carts of bronze, The stone sculpture of a bearded head found in Mohenjodaro. Apart from bronze and stone artworks, Terracotta figurines have
also been found in large numbers from the Harappan settlements. They were used as toys or cult figures. The Harappans used remarkably beautiful beads made of such precious and semi-precious stones such as agate, turquoise, carnelian, and steatite. Gold and silver beads have also been found. More than 2000 seals have been found from the Harappan settlements. They are considered 'the outstanding contribution of the Indus Civilization' to ancient craftsmanship. They were generally square in shape and made of steatite but some round seals have also been found. The designs on the seals include a wide range of animals associated with groups of signs in a semi-pictographic script. Some seals have only scripts carved on them and some others bear-human and semi-human
forms. Some seals show the use of various kinds of geometric patterns.
The Indus Script
The seals used by the Harappans carried some form of writing. This script is still a mystery and has yet to be deciphered by scholars.
Subsistence Pattern
The Harappans urbanism was based on agricultural production. Two varieties of wheat are frequently found in Harappan sites. Barley has been frequently found. Other crops include dates and varieties of leguminous plants, such as peas. Besides this mustard and sesamum were also grown. At Lothal and Rangapur rice husk was found embedded in clay and pottery. Fragments of cotton cloth are also found in some areas indicating Harappans had mastered the art of growing cotton and wearing cloth. Thus, we find that the Harappan subsistence system was based on the exploitation of a fairly wide range of crops, domesticated animals and wild animals. This variety would account for the strength of the subsistence system.
Unit 7
Q. Discuss the exchange system among the Harappan towns.
A. The Harappans had established an extensive network of inter-regional trade inside and outside the Indian sub-continent. The Harappans had made distinct attempts at regulating trade and exchange amongst themselves. Even the far-flung Harappan sites have yielded uniform systems of weights and measures. The weights followed a binary system in the lower denominations: 1,2,4,8, to 64, then going to 160 and then in decimal multiples of 16, 320, 640, 1600, 3200, etc. Made of chert, limestone, steatite, etc. they are, generally cubical in shape. The measures of length were based upon a unit of the foot of 37.6 cm and a unit of the cubit of about 51.8 to 53.6 cms. Such a uniform system of weights and measures indicates an attempt by the central authorities to regulate exchange among the Harappans themselves and possibly with the non-Harappans too. Seals and sealings have been discovered in large numbers in the Harappan settlements. Seals and sealings are marks of ownership meant to guarantee the quality of the product being sent to faraway lands.
a) The Harappans obtained gold from.. .....kashmir........(Kashmir/Rajasthan).
b) (Iron/ Tin) ....Iron....... was not known to the Harappans.
c) Lapis Lazuli was discovered in large quantity at.. ...Shortughai...............(Kalibangan/Shortughai).
d) Copper has obtained from.. ..Rajasthan....... (Rajasthan/Gujarat).
e) (Suktagen-Dor/Kalibangan)...SuktagenDor.....was important as a trading port between the Harappans and the Mesopotamians.
Q. Write in five sentences on the transportation system of the Harappans.
A. Many representations of ships and boats are found on seals in Harappa and Mohenjodaro. At Lothal was found a terracotta model of a ship with a stick impressed socket for the mast and eyeholes for fixing rigging. At Lothal was also discovered a brick basin 219 by 37 meters in length, with brick walls of 4.5 meters in height. The excavator believed that it was a dockyard. Apart from this site, the
seashore of the Arabian sea seems to have been dotted with many sea-ports. Places like Rangapur, Somnath, and Balakot would have functioned as outlets for the Harappans. Even in the inhospitable Makran coast, Harappan sites like Sutkagen-Dor and Sutkakoh have been discovered. The primary reason for their location in those inhospitable tracts was that they were safe from the dangerous monsoon storms and currents hitting the sea-coast in Western India and Sind. In the monsoon months,
they could function as outlets for the Harappans. The inland transport was done with bullock carts. Many terracotta models of bullock carts have been found in Harappan settlements. In Harappa was
found a bronze model of a cart with a seated driver and also models of little carts which are very ' similar to the modem 'Ikka' used in Punjab. For a longer journey through the wooded country, caravans of pack-oxen would be the chief means of transport. In historical times a large number of goods were transported by pastoral nomadic communities. Possibly the Harappans also engaged in similar practices. However, in those times river systems would have been the channels of transportation because they were cheaper and safer.
Unit 8
Q. Write five lines on Harappan Script.
A. The written script of the Harappans has been discovered but had not been deciphered yet by scholars. Some scholars believe that the language is written there is ancestral to the Dravidian group of languages like Tamil while others consider it was ancestral to language like Sanskrit. Scholars are of opinion that the Harappan script was not in common use and a very small section of privileged scribes had a monopoly over the written word.
Q. On what basis can we say that Harappan was an Urban Civilization.
A. Many reasons are available that indicate that Harappan civilization was an
Urban Civilization they were -
1) The construction and maintenance of elaborate drainage systems and streets.
2) The granaries which would collect food grains from the surrounding hinterland and redistribute it among the citizens of cities
3) The sheer range and volume of products consumed by the residents indicate the consumption pattern of cities.
These are some of the basis indicating Urban Civilization of Harappans.
Q. A number of things found in Harappan excavations indicate the presence of civic and political authority. What are these?
A. 1) The construction and maintenance of 'elaborate drainage system and streets would require a municipal authority in the cities.
2) The granaries indicate the presence of an authority which would collect food grains from the surrounding hinterland and redistribute it among the citizens.
3) As pointed out earlier, the tools, weapons, bricks, etc. show a remarkable uniformity of design. Some of the tools and weapons seem to have been mass-produced in one place and then distributed to various cities and settlements. The organization of production and distribution of these objects over an area covering thousands of km. would give tremendous power to those who decided how much to produce and where to send the products. If these people were to stop the supply of goods to a particular town, that town would be starved of tools and implements.
4) The sheer range and volume of products consumed by the residents of the large Cities indicate that some kind of a ruling class resided in them. Many of the objects were rarities brought from faraway lands.
5) Similarly, the larger size of the cities did not simply indicate that a larger number of people lived there but also the fact that they contained many monumental structures like temples, palaces, etc. The people who lived in these structures exercised political or economic or religious authority. No wonder, the seals which are considered marks of the authority of traders, priests or administrators are found in the largest numbers in Mohenjodaro where the largest number of monumental structures have also been found.
Q. Which of the Harappan religious structures indicate the prevalence of some collective worship or rituals?
A. A number of large buildings in the citadel and the lower town at Mohenjodaro are believed to have been temples of gods. In the lower city at Mohenjodaro a large the building has been discovered with monumental entrance and a double stairway leading to, a raised platform on which was found a stone sculpture 161/2 inches high. Another important structure found In Mohenjodaro which seems to have had some ritual significance is 'The Great Bath'. Hence, Big temple-like structures with a
number of sculptures, common baths, assembly halls, structures with a number of
fire pits, etc
Q. Do we get any evidence of fire worship from Harappan finds?
A. The Harappans at Kalibangan and Lothal seem to have followed different religious practices. At Kalibangan in the citadel were found a series of raised brick platforms crowned with 'fire altars' i.e., a series of brick-lined pits containing ash and animal bones. This area also had a well and bathing places. This complex seems to have represented some kind of ritual center where animal sacrifice, ritual ablution and some sort of fire rituals were performed. Many houses in the lower town also
contained a room having 'fire altars'.
Q. What significant points emerge from the study of the burial practices of Harappan sacrifice?
A. The most significant point is that burying the dead was accompanied by some rituals. It-appears that the Harappans believed in some sort of life after death because a number of items of everyday use or ornaments are also placed alongside the dead. Some times it is paired burial one male-and one female. In, some cases urns containing bones are also buried.
Unit 9
Q. Discuss in about 50 words the evidence for and against the theory of Barbarian invasions having destroyed Harappa.
A. Some scholars believed that the Harappan civilization was destroyed by the Aryan invaders. They point towards massacre at some places due to findings of human skeletons lying on the streets. These scholars refer to Rig Veda where it was mentioned that the fortresses of the Dasas and Dasyus were destroyed by The Vedic god Indra. The geographical area of the habitation of the Rig Vedic Aryans included Punjab and the Ghaggar-Hakra region. Since there are no remains of other cultural groups having forts in this area in this historical phase, scholars believed that it was the Harappan cities that were being described in the Rig Veda. In fact, the Rig Veda mentions a place called Hariyupiya. This place was located on the bank of the river Ravi. The Aryans fought a battle here. The name of the place sounds very similar to that of Harappa. These evidence led scholars to conclude that it was the
Aryan invaders who destroyed the cities of Harappa. This theory was rejected by some scholars on the basis that the provisional date for the decline of the Harappan civilization is believed to be 1800 B.C. The Aryans, on the other hand, are believed to have arrived here not earlier than a period around 1500 B.C. and so, the Harappans and the Aryans are unlikely to have met each other. The evidence of the human bodies lying exposed in the streets could have been caused by raids by bandits from the surrounding hilly tracts.
Q. Write in about 50 words about the importance of what has survived from Harappa.
A. The cults of Pasupati (Siva) and of the mother goddess and phallic worship seem to have come down to us from the Harappan tradition. Similarly, the cult of sacred places, rivers or trees, and sacred animals seems to have continued from the historic civilization of India. The evidence of fire worship and sacrifice in Kalihgan and Lothal is still prevalent. Many aspects of domestic life like the house plans, disposition of water supply and attention to bathing continued in the subsequent periods. The traditional weight and currency system of India, based on a ratio of sixteen as the unit, was already present in the Harappan civilization. The techniques of making potter's wheel in modern India are similar to those used by the Harappans. Bullock carts and boats used in modem India were already present in the Harappan cities.
Q. Discuss the physical features responsible for the rise of Magadha.
A. Some of the physical features responsible for the rise of Magadha were -
# highly fertile soils,
# sufficient rainfall ensuring a rich annual paddy crop;
# proximity to iron ore mines and sources of stone and timber of Chotanagpur Plateau which is towards the south of Magadha;
# the rivers provided for comfortable communication and trade;
# the closeness and continuity of settlements, occurred in this area taking full advantage of natural resources, leading to great population density.
A combination of these factors helped the easy conquest of the northern Gangetic plain. The territorial expansion over the northern plains then provided the basis for the complete Indian territorial supremacy. The supremacy achieved by Magadha was based on the conquest of the northern plains which had all necessary requirements such as soil, rainfall, vegetation, easy communication lines and availability of natural resources. The surrounding rivers like the Ganga, Son and Gandak provided for natural defense and easy trade and transport thus facilitating the growth of the Magadha empire.
Q. Discuss in about five lines the various kinds of pottery and the period it is associated with.
A. Pottery, because of its indestructible quality, helps an identifying mark of a culture and an important means of archaeological classification. Different cultures are identified by their pottery. We have the Ochre-Coloured Pottery Ware (OCP) which is dated earlier than 1000 B.C., the Painted Grey Ware (PGW) which roughly dated between 800-400 B.C., the Black and Red Ware (BRW) which lies in between the two and the Northern Black Polished (NBP) Ware which is dated between 500-100 B.C. The first three pottery types are basically encountered in the Indo-Gangetic divide and the upper Ganga valley, including the Doab. The Northern Black Polished Ware (NBP) has its center of origin in the middle Gangetic plain and spread out into Central India and the Deccan during the Mauryan period.
Q. Discuss in about ten lines the factors which hindered the political unification of the Indian sub-continent.
A. The development of strong regional personalities; strength of regional personalities; strength of regional forces etc. were major impediments for the unification of the Indian subcontinent .' The difference between regions may be explained in terms of :
# geography
# the manner and period of the spread of material culture, and
# the other important historical forces such as population, technology, social
the organization, communications, etc.
A combination of these factors helped in the shaping and development of the personality of the regions.
Owing to the development of distinct and strong regional personalities and the strength of regional forces the Indian sub-continent was never completely politically united. Some regions owing to their inner strength tried to expand and attain pan-Indian status with limited success. The Mauryas, Tughlaqs, Mughals and the British provided a semblance of political unity. However, none of them succeeded in imposing political unity on all the geographic units and culture areas, though the British came very close to it. Central India and the extreme end of Peninsular India have always remained outside the ambit of any strong, expansive pan-Indian power. Two geographical impediments were the Vindhyas that separate North India and the Deccan peninsula and Aravalis range also working as another frontier line.
Unit 3
Q. Which period of Social evolution represents the hunting-gathering stage :
a) Palaeolithic Age
b) Mesolithic Age
C) Palaeolithic and Mesolithic Age
d) Neolithic Age
A. Palaeolithic and Mesolithic Age
Q. Pleistocene Period was :
a) Very cold
b) Very warm
c) Temperature was laid
d) Very dry
A. Very Cold
Q. Palaeolithic Culture has been divided into three phases on the ba& of :
a) Change in the climate
b) The nature of stone tools.
c) Faunal remains
d) Nature of stone tools and change in climate and faunal remains
A. Nature of stone tools and change in climate and faunal remains
Q. The Mesolithic tools are primarily:
a) Handaxe and cleaver
b) Cleaver, Chopper and Chopping tools
c) Blade, Core, Point, and Lunate &
d) Chopping tool and flake
A. Blade, Core, Point, and Lunate
Q. Mesolithic sites have been reported from:
a) The river Kothsri
b) The river Tapti
c) Godavari delta
d) The rivers Kothari, Tapti and Godavari delta
A. The rivers Kothari, Tapti and Godavari delta
Q. Which one of the following statements is most appropriate?
a) The subsistence pattern of Mesolithic people was based on the hunting of animals
b) gathering of wild fruits and seeds
c) hunting of animals and gathering of wild fruits
d) surplus food pr4uction
A. hunting of animals and gathering of wild fruits
Q. What do the Mesolithic tools and paintings suggest in terms of subsistence pattern and social organization?
A. The diet of the people during the Mesolithic Age included both meat and vegetable food. The remains of fish, tortoise, hare, mongoose, porcupine, deer and nilgai have been found from different Mesolithic sites. Besides hunting and fishing, the Mesolithic people also collected wild roots, tubers, fruits, honey, etc. and these constituted important elements in the overall dietary pattern. The plant food seems to have been more easily available than the hunted animal food as the tools used were small, not ideal for hunting.
The paintings and engravings found at the rock shelters which the Mesolithic people used to give us a considerable idea about the social life and economic activities of Mesolithic people. Sites like Bhimbetka, Adamgarh, Pratapgarh, and Mirzapur are rich in Mesolithic art and paintings. Hunting, food-gathering, fishing, and other human activities are reflected in these paintings and engravings. Bhimbetka is extremely rich in paintings. The paintings and engravings depict activities like sexual union, childbirth, rearing of a child, and burial ceremony. All these indicate that during
the Mesolithic period, the social organization had become more stable than in paleolithic times.
Unit 4
Q. Discuss in about 10 lines the main characteristics of the Neolithic stage of culture.
A. The domestication of plants and animals has been considered as one of the main characteristic features of the Neolithic stage of culture. Some other characteristics of Neolithic culture were -
# Practice of agriculture
# Domestication of animals
# Grinding and polishing of stone tools, and also
# The manufacture of pottery.
The neolithic stage represents a culture of the pre-metal stage where the inhabitants had assured the supply of food by the cultivation of cereals and domestication of animals and led a sedentary life. However, Ground stone tools remain the most essential
characteristics of Neolithic culture.
Domestication of plants and animals led to:
# the emergence of village communities based on sedentary life,
# the beginnings of agriculture technology, and
# greater control over nature by the exploitation of natural resources
Q. According to Gordon Childe, Neolithic culture represents a .self sufficient (dependent/self-sufficient) food-producing economy.
ii) Ground stone (Ground stone/Copper) tools remain the essential characteristic of
Neolithic culture.
iii) Jericho is the earliest known village with a mud fortification (water tank/mud fortification).
iv) Catal Huyuk was a large (large/small) village in Turkey (Turkey/Iran).
Q. What do the finds of pottery, ground tools, and mud hutments, etc. indicate in terms of development in human society?
A. The neolithic phase represents the evolution of human society from hunter-gatherer into a sedentary farmer. The origins of agriculture and beginnings of domestication of animals led to the establishment of villages and self-sufficiency of food grains. This was a revolutionary transformation from nomadic life to settled life. This led to the beginning of village settlements with mud hutments, manufacturing of pottery and manufacturing of new types of tools for hunting, now they were polished to agriculture.
Human communities entered a new stage of culture when, instead of depending entirely on the resources of nature for survival, they started producing their own food by cultivating cereals like barley, wheat, and rice and started domesticating some species of animals-both for supplies of milk and meat as well as for harnessing their labor for various purposes. Domestication of plants and animals led to:
# the emergence of village communities based on sedentary life,
# the beginnings of agriculture technology, and
# greater control over nature by the exploitation of natural resources.
Well, all these indicate a process during which human beings were. moving from simple to complex societies; Division of labor: advances in technology; need-based inventions, etc. Were associated with this time.
Block 2 (Unit 5)
Q. Write ten lines on the geographical features of the early Harappan Civilization.
A. The areas of present-day Pakistan and North-West India formed the core region of the Harappan civilization. These areas are characterized by dry weather and scanty rainfall. However, there are variations among these areas. Whereas the areas of Punjab and Sindh are dominated by the alluvial plains of the Indus river system, the areas of Baluchistan are characterized by steep hills. This area has been inhabited by another set of people also, namely pastoral nomads. These pastoral nomads with their herds of sheep, goats, and cattle kept shifting from uplands to low lands in search of pastures for their herd. These hilly regions are fractured by many passes, like those of Khyber, Gomal and Bolan. These have acted as highways of traffic for nomads, merchants, warriors and various groups of people.
Q. How did different areas of the early Harappan period evolve into a civilization?
A. There were similarities found in the cultural traditions of diverse agricultural communities living in & around the Indus regions in the Early Harappan period. Although distinct regional traditions emerged among the small agricultural settlements the areas of Baluchistan, Sind, Punjab, and Rajasthan yet the use of similar kinds of potteries, representations of a horned deity & finds of terracotta mother goddesses show the way to the emergence of a unifying tradition and a civilization. Many factors that resulted in the evolution of the Harappa civilization were the developments that took place over a period of nearly three thousand years. Better Agriculture Technology and production Cultivators colonized the alluvial plains of the Indus during this period. These communities were using tools of copper, bronze, and stone. They were using plough and wheeled transport for the greater productivity of labor. The Indus people reared cattle which gave them better
possibilities of harnessing animal power for transportation and cultivation. This better use of technology increased agricultural production thus bringing in prosperity and supporting a greater population. The increasingly efficient technology and the exploitation of the fertile plains of the Indus increased grain production. larger agricultural surpluses lead to an increase in population. At the same time trading contacts established with distant communities of Mesopotamia etc by the richer section of the society increased the trade. The larger surpluses led to the increase of non-farming specialization thus, village priest could become the part of a clan of priests spread over the entire region. Similarily, metallurgists, potters, and craftsmen came into prominence. The improvements in transportation facilitated trade and better unification. At the same time, a gradual unification too took place in the pottery tradition. In the 'Early Harappan' period a particular kind of pottery first
identified in Kot Diji was spread over almost the entire area of Baluchistan, Punjab, and Rajasthan. In the backdrop of these processes of technological and ideological unification emerged the Harappan Civilization.
Unit 6
Q. Discuss the geographical location of the important centers of Harappan Civilization
A. Some important centers of Harappan Civilization were -
Harappa - It is located on the bank of the Ravi in Western Punjab. It is one of the major cities of the civilization, and it was located in the midst of some important trade routes which are still in use. These routes connected Harappa with Central Asia, Afghanistan and Jammu. Harappa's pre-eminent position was linked to its ability to procure exotic items from faraway lands. The ruins of the city cover a circuit of about 3 miles. In Harappa, a substantial section of the population was engaged in activities other than food production. These activities could relate to administration, trade, craftwork or, religion. Since these people were not producing foo themselves, it was procured from nearby villages.
Mohenjodaro
Mohenjodaro, located in the Larkana district of Sind on the bank of the river Indus is the largest site of the Harappan Civilization. Most of the information regarding the town planning, housing, seals & sealings of this Civilization comes from Mohenjodaro. Excavations show that people lived here for a very long time and went on building and rebuilding houses at the same location. As a result of this, the height of the remains of the building and the debris is about seventy-five feet. Ever since the time
of occupation, there were regular floods at Mohenjodaro. These floods caused deposition of alluvial soil.
Kalibangan
The settlement of Kalibangan is located in Rajasthan along the dried-up bed of the river Ghaggar. This area had the largest concentration of the Harappan settlements. Kalibangan has yielded evidence for the existence of Pre-Harappan and Harappan habitations. It shows significant variation from Harappan in the sphere of religious beliefs. Some scholars have suggested that Kalibangan might have been part of the 'Eastern Domain' of the Harappan Civilization. They give evidence of the presence of distinct local traditions in pottery along with the Harappan pottery. Kalibangan might
have been a mediator between the Harappan cultural zone & the eastern provinces.
Lothal
In Gujarat settlements such as Rangapur, Surkotada & Lothal have been discovered. Lothal is located in the coastal flats of the Gulf of Cambay. This place seems to have been an outpost for sea-trade with contemporary West Asian societies. It's excavator S.R. Rao claims to have discovered a dockyard here.
Sutkagen-Dor
Sutkagen-Dor is located near the Makran coast which is close to the Pakistan-Iran border. At present, the settlement is land-locked in dry inhospitable plains.
Q. Discuss the material characteristics of the Harappan Civilization
A. Some of the material characteristics of Harappan Civilization were -
Town-Planning - There was uniformity in town planning in Harappan towns. Each town is divided into 2 parts. In one part was a raised citadel where the rulers were staying, in the other part of the town lived the ruled and the poor. The settlements of Harappa, Mohenjodaro, and Kalibangan show certain uniformities in their planning. These cities were divided into a citadel on the west side and a
lower town on the eastern side of the settlement. The citadel was built on a high podium of mud brick. The citadel seems to have contained large structures which might have functioned as administrative or ritual centers. The lower city contained residential areas. In Mohenjodaro and Harappa the citadel was surrounded by a brick wall. At Kalibangan both the citadel and the lower city were surrounded by a wall, streets ran from north to south in the lower city and cut at right angles. In
Harappa and Mohenjodaro baked bricks were used for buildings. Harappans were using baked and unbaked bricks of standard size. This shows that it was not the individual house owners who made their own bricks, but that brick making was organized on a large scale. Similarly, cities like Mohenjodaro showed excellent I arrangements for sanitation.
Pottery - Most of Harappan pottery is plain, but a substantial part is treated with a red slip and black painted decoration. The painted decorations consist of horizontal tines of varied thickness, leaf patterns, scales, chequers, latticework, palm and pipal trees. Birds, fishes, and animals are also shown. Among the notable shapes found in the Harappan pottery are a pedestal, dishes, goblets, cylindrical vessels perforated all over and various kinds of bowls.
Tools and Implements
The tools and implements used by the Harappans also show a striking degree of uniformity in designs and in the technique of production. They were using tools made of copper, bronze, and stone. The basic tools types were flat axe, chisels, knives, spearheads and arrowheads for the copper and bronze implements. In the later stages of Civilization, they were also using daggers, knives and flat tangs. They were familiar Hooks for fishing with the techniques of casting bronze and copper. Stone tools were also in common use. They were produced on a large scale in factory sites like Sukkur in Sind and then sent to various urban centers.
Arts and Crafts
Works of art give us an insight into how society relates itself to its surroundings. There are many art pieces discovered from Harappan civilization, prominent among them were - the bronze dancing nude figure discovered in Mohenjodaro, The two little toy carts of bronze, The stone sculpture of a bearded head found in Mohenjodaro. Apart from bronze and stone artworks, Terracotta figurines have
also been found in large numbers from the Harappan settlements. They were used as toys or cult figures. The Harappans used remarkably beautiful beads made of such precious and semi-precious stones such as agate, turquoise, carnelian, and steatite. Gold and silver beads have also been found. More than 2000 seals have been found from the Harappan settlements. They are considered 'the outstanding contribution of the Indus Civilization' to ancient craftsmanship. They were generally square in shape and made of steatite but some round seals have also been found. The designs on the seals include a wide range of animals associated with groups of signs in a semi-pictographic script. Some seals have only scripts carved on them and some others bear-human and semi-human
forms. Some seals show the use of various kinds of geometric patterns.
The Indus Script
The seals used by the Harappans carried some form of writing. This script is still a mystery and has yet to be deciphered by scholars.
Subsistence Pattern
The Harappans urbanism was based on agricultural production. Two varieties of wheat are frequently found in Harappan sites. Barley has been frequently found. Other crops include dates and varieties of leguminous plants, such as peas. Besides this mustard and sesamum were also grown. At Lothal and Rangapur rice husk was found embedded in clay and pottery. Fragments of cotton cloth are also found in some areas indicating Harappans had mastered the art of growing cotton and wearing cloth. Thus, we find that the Harappan subsistence system was based on the exploitation of a fairly wide range of crops, domesticated animals and wild animals. This variety would account for the strength of the subsistence system.
Unit 7
Q. Discuss the exchange system among the Harappan towns.
A. The Harappans had established an extensive network of inter-regional trade inside and outside the Indian sub-continent. The Harappans had made distinct attempts at regulating trade and exchange amongst themselves. Even the far-flung Harappan sites have yielded uniform systems of weights and measures. The weights followed a binary system in the lower denominations: 1,2,4,8, to 64, then going to 160 and then in decimal multiples of 16, 320, 640, 1600, 3200, etc. Made of chert, limestone, steatite, etc. they are, generally cubical in shape. The measures of length were based upon a unit of the foot of 37.6 cm and a unit of the cubit of about 51.8 to 53.6 cms. Such a uniform system of weights and measures indicates an attempt by the central authorities to regulate exchange among the Harappans themselves and possibly with the non-Harappans too. Seals and sealings have been discovered in large numbers in the Harappan settlements. Seals and sealings are marks of ownership meant to guarantee the quality of the product being sent to faraway lands.
a) The Harappans obtained gold from.. .....kashmir........(Kashmir/Rajasthan).
b) (Iron/ Tin) ....Iron....... was not known to the Harappans.
c) Lapis Lazuli was discovered in large quantity at.. ...Shortughai...............(Kalibangan/Shortughai).
d) Copper has obtained from.. ..Rajasthan....... (Rajasthan/Gujarat).
e) (Suktagen-Dor/Kalibangan)...SuktagenDor.....was important as a trading port between the Harappans and the Mesopotamians.
Q. Write in five sentences on the transportation system of the Harappans.
A. Many representations of ships and boats are found on seals in Harappa and Mohenjodaro. At Lothal was found a terracotta model of a ship with a stick impressed socket for the mast and eyeholes for fixing rigging. At Lothal was also discovered a brick basin 219 by 37 meters in length, with brick walls of 4.5 meters in height. The excavator believed that it was a dockyard. Apart from this site, the
seashore of the Arabian sea seems to have been dotted with many sea-ports. Places like Rangapur, Somnath, and Balakot would have functioned as outlets for the Harappans. Even in the inhospitable Makran coast, Harappan sites like Sutkagen-Dor and Sutkakoh have been discovered. The primary reason for their location in those inhospitable tracts was that they were safe from the dangerous monsoon storms and currents hitting the sea-coast in Western India and Sind. In the monsoon months,
they could function as outlets for the Harappans. The inland transport was done with bullock carts. Many terracotta models of bullock carts have been found in Harappan settlements. In Harappa was
found a bronze model of a cart with a seated driver and also models of little carts which are very ' similar to the modem 'Ikka' used in Punjab. For a longer journey through the wooded country, caravans of pack-oxen would be the chief means of transport. In historical times a large number of goods were transported by pastoral nomadic communities. Possibly the Harappans also engaged in similar practices. However, in those times river systems would have been the channels of transportation because they were cheaper and safer.
Unit 8
Q. Write five lines on Harappan Script.
A. The written script of the Harappans has been discovered but had not been deciphered yet by scholars. Some scholars believe that the language is written there is ancestral to the Dravidian group of languages like Tamil while others consider it was ancestral to language like Sanskrit. Scholars are of opinion that the Harappan script was not in common use and a very small section of privileged scribes had a monopoly over the written word.
Q. On what basis can we say that Harappan was an Urban Civilization.
A. Many reasons are available that indicate that Harappan civilization was an
Urban Civilization they were -
1) The construction and maintenance of elaborate drainage systems and streets.
2) The granaries which would collect food grains from the surrounding hinterland and redistribute it among the citizens of cities
3) The sheer range and volume of products consumed by the residents indicate the consumption pattern of cities.
These are some of the basis indicating Urban Civilization of Harappans.
Q. A number of things found in Harappan excavations indicate the presence of civic and political authority. What are these?
A. 1) The construction and maintenance of 'elaborate drainage system and streets would require a municipal authority in the cities.
2) The granaries indicate the presence of an authority which would collect food grains from the surrounding hinterland and redistribute it among the citizens.
3) As pointed out earlier, the tools, weapons, bricks, etc. show a remarkable uniformity of design. Some of the tools and weapons seem to have been mass-produced in one place and then distributed to various cities and settlements. The organization of production and distribution of these objects over an area covering thousands of km. would give tremendous power to those who decided how much to produce and where to send the products. If these people were to stop the supply of goods to a particular town, that town would be starved of tools and implements.
4) The sheer range and volume of products consumed by the residents of the large Cities indicate that some kind of a ruling class resided in them. Many of the objects were rarities brought from faraway lands.
5) Similarly, the larger size of the cities did not simply indicate that a larger number of people lived there but also the fact that they contained many monumental structures like temples, palaces, etc. The people who lived in these structures exercised political or economic or religious authority. No wonder, the seals which are considered marks of the authority of traders, priests or administrators are found in the largest numbers in Mohenjodaro where the largest number of monumental structures have also been found.
Q. Which of the Harappan religious structures indicate the prevalence of some collective worship or rituals?
A. A number of large buildings in the citadel and the lower town at Mohenjodaro are believed to have been temples of gods. In the lower city at Mohenjodaro a large the building has been discovered with monumental entrance and a double stairway leading to, a raised platform on which was found a stone sculpture 161/2 inches high. Another important structure found In Mohenjodaro which seems to have had some ritual significance is 'The Great Bath'. Hence, Big temple-like structures with a
number of sculptures, common baths, assembly halls, structures with a number of
fire pits, etc
Q. Do we get any evidence of fire worship from Harappan finds?
A. The Harappans at Kalibangan and Lothal seem to have followed different religious practices. At Kalibangan in the citadel were found a series of raised brick platforms crowned with 'fire altars' i.e., a series of brick-lined pits containing ash and animal bones. This area also had a well and bathing places. This complex seems to have represented some kind of ritual center where animal sacrifice, ritual ablution and some sort of fire rituals were performed. Many houses in the lower town also
contained a room having 'fire altars'.
Q. What significant points emerge from the study of the burial practices of Harappan sacrifice?
A. The most significant point is that burying the dead was accompanied by some rituals. It-appears that the Harappans believed in some sort of life after death because a number of items of everyday use or ornaments are also placed alongside the dead. Some times it is paired burial one male-and one female. In, some cases urns containing bones are also buried.
Unit 9
Q. Discuss in about 50 words the evidence for and against the theory of Barbarian invasions having destroyed Harappa.
A. Some scholars believed that the Harappan civilization was destroyed by the Aryan invaders. They point towards massacre at some places due to findings of human skeletons lying on the streets. These scholars refer to Rig Veda where it was mentioned that the fortresses of the Dasas and Dasyus were destroyed by The Vedic god Indra. The geographical area of the habitation of the Rig Vedic Aryans included Punjab and the Ghaggar-Hakra region. Since there are no remains of other cultural groups having forts in this area in this historical phase, scholars believed that it was the Harappan cities that were being described in the Rig Veda. In fact, the Rig Veda mentions a place called Hariyupiya. This place was located on the bank of the river Ravi. The Aryans fought a battle here. The name of the place sounds very similar to that of Harappa. These evidence led scholars to conclude that it was the
Aryan invaders who destroyed the cities of Harappa. This theory was rejected by some scholars on the basis that the provisional date for the decline of the Harappan civilization is believed to be 1800 B.C. The Aryans, on the other hand, are believed to have arrived here not earlier than a period around 1500 B.C. and so, the Harappans and the Aryans are unlikely to have met each other. The evidence of the human bodies lying exposed in the streets could have been caused by raids by bandits from the surrounding hilly tracts.
Q. Write in about 50 words about the importance of what has survived from Harappa.
A. The cults of Pasupati (Siva) and of the mother goddess and phallic worship seem to have come down to us from the Harappan tradition. Similarly, the cult of sacred places, rivers or trees, and sacred animals seems to have continued from the historic civilization of India. The evidence of fire worship and sacrifice in Kalihgan and Lothal is still prevalent. Many aspects of domestic life like the house plans, disposition of water supply and attention to bathing continued in the subsequent periods. The traditional weight and currency system of India, based on a ratio of sixteen as the unit, was already present in the Harappan civilization. The techniques of making potter's wheel in modern India are similar to those used by the Harappans. Bullock carts and boats used in modem India were already present in the Harappan cities.
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