EHI - 02

8th Part

Block 9 (Unit 36)

Q. Discuss the factors responsible for the decline of trade in Post Gupta Period

A. Indian foreign trade reached its peak during the post-Mauryan period and trading declined both internal and external Post Gupta period. Some of the factors responsible for the decline were -

1) The decline of the Roman Empire had a devastating impact on trade with India. There is no evidence of Roman and other western coins excavated suggesting the complete collapse of trade with the west.

2) The emergence of the Arabs and the Persians as competitors in trade did not augur well for Indian merchants who couldn’t compete with them.

3) Silk and spices were important items in the Indo-Byzantine trade however by the middle of the sixth century A.D. the Byzantium learned the art of growing silkworms thus badly affecting the trade.

4) Unlike before the Gupta ties with Central Asia were weak and Whatever little remained of the contacts with Central Asia and Western Asia were completely wiped off by the Huna invasions severely affecting the trade. The decline of trade was just not limited to foreign trade. Long-distance internal trade too suffered owing to the weakening of links between coastal towns and the interior towns and further between towns and villages. The decay of towns and shrinkage in urban commodity production and the decline of trade were related problems. The decline of the status of traders and merchants in society during this period also indicates the falling fortunes of trade and commerce. The rise of numerous self-sufficient units dominated by landed beneficiaries also had an adverse effect on trade. In fact, the Kathasaritasagara, a later work, suggests that traders moved through forests to avoid the multiple payments of duties. Sea voyages and long-distance travel were taboo. Such attitudes surely did not promote the cause of trade.

Q. Discuss the major advances made in the field of agricultural technology

A. The detailed instructions about agriculture in texts like Agni Purana, Vishnudharmottara Purana, Krishiparasar, etc. prove the advancements in the field of agriculture. It is mentioned that cow dung and refuge were used for manuring the fields which are to improve the yield of the agricultural land. The Harshacharita tells us about different types of cultivation - plough cultivation, spade cultivation, and slash and bum cultivation, signifying different methods adopted by cultivators. Texts also suggested different methods employed for the treatment of plant and animal diseases. Inscriptions from Bengal mention rivers, rivulets, and channels in the context of rural settlements and their boundaries and we also come across the expression devamatrika (watered by rain7 suggesting the dependence of agriculture on rains and rivers. In South India tanks and reservoirs were built to irrigate the fields. During the rule of the Pallavas in South India, there were elected committees (eri-variyams) in the villages to look after the construction and maintenance of tanks and reservoirs. By the tenth century, araghattas or irrigational wells were in vogue in rural southeastern Marwar in Rajasthan.

Q. Discuss the main features of agrarian relations during the early medieval period.

A. Obligations of the Peasant - Land-grant charters during that period bestowed the beneficiary with superior rights over and above those of the inhabitants in the donated villages. The donee was entitled to collect all kinds of taxes. He could collect regular and irregular taxes and fixed and unfixed payments. This created a situation where the peasantry was subjected to an ever-increasing tax/rent burden. The Vakataka grants list fourteen types of dues. The Pallava records specify eighteen to twenty-two of them. By the turn of the first millennium A.D., the number of taxes increased enormously. The donees were empowered with the right to evict the

peasantry at will and to replace them with new peasants. From the seventh century onwards grants give away water resources, trees, bushes and pastures to the donee. The trend accelerated after the tenth century. The transfer of these resources to the donee not only affected the peasantry of the donated villages adversely but also

strengthened the power of the donees thus crushing the peasants.

Feudal Land Tenure - Landgrants led to hierarchical rights over land and sub-infeudation. The practice gave rise to a hierarchy of landlords, which lived off the surplus produced by the actual cultivators. The religious establishments in eastern India and the south with their enormous donations in the land, cash, livestock, etc. emerged as landed magnates who give it to their dependents which is further sub-leased to actual tillers. This created a class of peasantry that was overburdened with taxes and which was subsistent to a class of dominant landlords with superior rights inland.

Growth of Closed Economy - Early medieval Indian economy experienced the rise and growth of a number of rival settlements which were not linked to exchange networks and long-distance trade. Although the exchange networks did not entirely collapse, the transfer of settlements to various categories of donees had created a congenial atmosphere for the emergence of self-sustaining, closed units of production and consumption. The growing sense of localism and the self-sufficiency of the villages thus led to the growth of a closed economy.

Unit 37

Q. How far were the changes in the social order related to the changing economic patterns in the post-Gupta period.

A. The social changes in the Gupta and post-Gupta times can be related to economic changes. The major economic forces of the period were large scale Land grants, a decline of trade, commerce, & urban life; the paucity of money, agrarian expansion and growing agrarian character of society, and the emergence of relatively closed local units of production and consumption. On this basis evolved a social structure broadly characterized by a sizable ruling landed aristocracy, intermediaries and a large body of the impoverished peasantry. The unequal distribution of landed property and power led to the emergence of new social groups and ranks which cut across varna divisions like a brahmana, kshatriya, vaisya, and sudra. The other important changes in the social structure involved the emergence and proliferation of new castes, the hardening of caste relations and the acculturation of the most. The acculturation of tribes was not simply the result of the movement of Brahmanas into tribal areas as a result of land grants. This was caused by the emergence of local royal families in remote areas, and the Brahmanas were patronized mostly by these royal families with gifts of land, with employment at royal courts and other offers. This implies that when tribes lived there emerged a much more complex society in which social differentiation, represented by different

groups like peasants, Brahmanas, craftsmen, merchants, rulers, etc, were present.

Q. What do you understand by Varnasamskara.

A. Varnasamkara meant the inter-mixing and/or union of varnas/castes, normally not socially approved, leading to the emergence of mixed castes, which symbolized social disorder. With the substantial increase in the number of new castes greater rigidity was introduced into the caste system & inter-caste marriages came to be viewed with disfavor. Earlier, anuloma marriages or marriages between a bridegroom from an upper-caste & a bride from a lower caste were sanctioned. It was the pratiloma marriage (the reverse of anuloma) which was censured. However, increasingly anuloma marriages too were not favored.

Q. Discuss the changes in the Vaishya community with reference to their economic decline.

A. During the heyday of Indian foreign trade in the post-Mauryan times, the Vaisyas got identified with urban occupations and towns. In a predominantly agrarian setting of the post- Gupta period, the vaisya traders and merchants suffered economic loss and social degradation. Many of them crowded into agriculture to earn their living. According to evidence of texts, the lower strata of the Vaisyas who were free peasant landholders till the Gupta period were increasingly reduced to a state of dependence and subjection. The distinction between the Vaisyas and the Sudras got blurred as the differences in their occupations and standards of living faded away. Therefore, in writing of the later period, for example in the writings of Albiruni, both of them were bracketed together.

Q. Discuss the position of women during this period.

A. The position of women in society during this period was that of progressive decline. Marriage of women at an early age was common, pre-puberty marriage was being preferred. Formal education was denied to them and they were generally denied

property rights. The joint references to women and Sudras in contemporary literature such as the Brihatsamhita amply demonstrates the plight of women. They were debarred from various sacrifices & ceremonies. The practice of Sati (or

self-immolation by wife on the funeral pyre of her dead husband) gained social acceptance during this period. The change of women's gotra upon marriage can be dated to the period after the fifth century A.D. This constituted an important development because it marked the curtailment of their rights in their parental

home and symbolized the final triumph of the patriarchal system of a male-dominated society.

Q. The proliferation of castes was an important development in the Gupta and post-Gupta periods. Explain in 15 lines.

A. One important development which took place during this period was that the number of castes or jatis increased substantially. This development affected even the Brahmanas, the kshatriyas (and later the Rajputs), the Sudras and the untouchables as well. The existing varnas were split into many castes and many tribes that became transformed into castes were included in them. Differences within the varnas intensified as Brahmanical society expanded. Hierarchy emerged within each varna because of the acculturation and incorporation of various groups of people and communities at varying levels of cultural growth. Unequal access to economic and political power also helped the crystallization of caste distinctions

during this period. While a number of castes came to be incorporated within each varna, there are also examples of earlier cohesive communities breaking up into many varnas, jatis/castes. The Abhira tribe provides a good example as it fragmented

into Abhira Brahmanas, Abhira kshatriyas and Abhira sudras.

The Brahmanas

The number of castes that emerged among the Brahmanas was considerable. Brahmanas who "commercialized" their priestly services, those who came in contact with the aboriginals or those who could not entirely avoid physical labor stood degraded in the eyes of the srotriya agrahara Brahmanas, who did not engage in

manual labor. Thus there is the formation of different ranks within the brahmana varna. The same process was true also of the Kayastha.

The Kshatriyas

Among the kshatriyas, the proliferation of caste was caused by the emergence of new ruling houses from among the local tribes and the incorporation of foreign ethnic groups, wielding political power, into the mainstream of society. Among the foreign ethnic groups, the Bactrian Greeks, Sakas, Parthians, Hunas, etc. were accommodated in the varna system as second class kshatriya. Many ruling dynasties in the post-Gupta period emerged from humble origins and subsequently graduated to kshatriya status. The Pallavas and Chalukyas of peninsular India, Palas of Bengal and

Bihar and many sub-regional dynasties in Orissa had tribal origins. In the subsequent centuries, most Rajputs emerged from a tribal and/or pastoral base.

The Sudras

Endogamous groups coming from various communities and regions vastly expanded the base of the sudra varna. Petty peasant castes, rich peasants. share-croppers and artisanal castes, with unequal access to economic power, were included in the sudra varna in Gupta and post-Gupta times. Thus, sudra varna included widely disparate groups and came to comprise the largest number of castes. Tribes became castes as a consequence of their gradual transformation as peasants and these peasant groups were incorporated into the Brahmanic society as Sudras. This is how the number of people in Sudra Varna increased tremendously.

Unit 38

Q. Discuss the main differences between the Mauryan polity & the polity during 300 A.D. - 700 A.D.

A. When compared to the Mauryan polity the King's government during this period did not possess effective powers and control throughout its territory. In the outlying areas, the feudatory chiefs or Samanta had their administrative jurisdiction & their recognition of the King's authority was only nominal. The Mauryan gov't had

a large number of higher officials to control each and every social and economic activity in the major part of the empire. This was not so in the case of the Gupta empire or other contemporary polities, where many things were outside the state control. For example, while craft and merchant guilds were kept under strict government vigilance in the Mauryan state, they were more or less autonomous in the Gupta age. Even the laws pertaining to each guild were given due recognition in the latter case. Such fragmentation of Kingly powers during this period is to be attributed to certain major changes emerging in the socio-economic organization. Another feature, unlike the Mauryan period, was the emergence of feudalism in the country during the Gupta period. By granting land to priests and officials for their maintenance, generally, the King not only gave the land but also parted with some of his administrative rights like taxing the people, punishing the criminals, etc. The granted territories were also given immunity from the entry of the King's army. Naturally, the grantees of such lands became almost independent of the King and became Samanthas themselves. Thus Gupta period onward the political organization which developed in India represented a feudal-type of political organization.

Q. Write in about five lines the role of Samanthas in the polity.

A. Semi-independent local chiefs called Samanta led to the decentralized polity in the Gupta empire. Samudragupta conquered & subjugated a number of territories. Some of the rulers of these territories which were on the fringes of the Gupta empire were made subordinate allies of the King. They became feudatories, of the Gupta King paying periodical tribute to the latter. They were obliged to pay homage to the King by personally attending his court. The King, in turn, recognized their right to continue to rule over their own territories and for this he also gave them charters.

These subordinate rulers were also obliged to send their men to fight in the King's army during times of war. Subject to the above obligations the feudatories or Samantha's were left to look after the administration of their territories thus leading to decentralization of power.

Unit 39

Q. In what ways did the Bhakti Movement in the South differ from Brahmanism.

A. Unlike the Brahmanas who propagated Hinduism through esoteric theories and the use of Sanskrit, the hymnal saints sang in easily understood forms using only the popular language, Tamil. Their Bhakti was not a reverence for a transcendent deity, but ecstatic love for an imminent one. Whereas the Brahmanas were obsessed with caste regulations, the Bhakti movement not only ignored caste but also including men and women of all castes. Among the Nayanmar 'Karaikkal, Ammai was a woman and Nandanar was a member of the depressed class. Among the Alvars, Andal was a woman and Tiruppan was a hymnist from a "low caste". Thus the whole movement carried elements of protest and reform. The Bhakti cult emerged out of the various religious cults and became very strong in South India. It ignored caste regulations and women had a higher status in the Bhakti movement when compared to Brahmanism.

Q. Discuss the main features of Tantrism.

A. In the Tantric practices of the early medieval period, there were three important features, all of them interconnected. They are a higher status given to women, sexual rituals, and the presence of many female deities. Women enjoyed a higher status in all the tribal belts, unlike Sanskrit texts where they were bracketed with Shudras Similarly, among the primitive people in India and outside, sexual rites formed an important part of their religious rites. It was believed by the tribals that such rites promoted the fertility of the earth. The reason for the importance of female deities in Tantrism is that in all the tribal belts the cult of the mother goddesses was widely prevalent. The priests of Tantrism challenged the exclusive

rites of the Brahmanas. Tantrism served an important social purpose by generally providing for the initiation of lower castes and women, who were held to be of inferior status by the Brahmanical system.

Q. Discuss the relationship of Tantrism with other heterodox religions

A. Early Buddhism and Jainism tried their best to check the infiltration of these Tantric practices into their cults. In the earliest phase of their history, Buddhism and Jainism launched a systematic campaign against the cult of image worship, rituals and sacrifices as destructive of all morals. Slowly tantrism penetrated the two

religions. Mahayanism, a major development of Buddhism adopted image worship during the Kushana period. Mahayanism is said to have developed into Mantrayanism or Vajrayanism in the Andhra region by adopting Tantric practices. Many Tanmc texts emerged since the third century A.D. from Andhra and Kalinga and spread to Vanga and Magadha where Nalanda developed as a center of Tantric study in the reign of the Palas. In the early medieval age, Tantrism infiltrated into Jainism on a significant scale. As a result, Jainism developed a pantheon of Yakshas and Yakshis (the attendant demi-gods and goddesses of the Tirthankaras) together

with a number of mantras (magical formulae) to propitiate them. Many Jaina Tantric texts, which incorporated elements of magic and miracle, glorified the cult of Yakshis. The Yapaniya sect of the Jainas was the foremost in propagating Tantric mode of worship in early medieval Karnataka.

EHI - 02

7th Part

Block 8 (Unit 32)

Q. Discuss in about ten lines the efforts made by Samudragupta for the expansion of the Gupta empire.

A. An aggressive policy of conquests was adopted by Samudragupta for expansion and consolidation of the Gupta empire. He adopted a different approach to different regions. The Prayagaprasasti says that Samudragupta showed favor to be

Dakshinapatha kings by first capturing them (grahana) and then releasing them (moksha). He let the kings in the South whom he had defeated, rule over their regions. In return, they accepted his suzerainty and paid tributes. Such a policy adopted in relation to the far-flung areas might have paid dividends in solving problems of communication and effective control, hence bringing about stability for the time being. He pursued a completely different policy with regard to the kings of Aryavarta or north India. He not only defeated them but also annexed their territories which became integrated into the Gupta empire. Samudragupta reduced all states in the forest regions to the position of servants. The frontier kingdoms like Samatata (in southeast Bengal), Kamarupa (Assam), Nepal (Nepal) and others and the republican states of the Malavas, Yaudheyas, Madrakas, Abhiras, etc. paid him tributes of all

kinds, carried out his orders and paid him homage. The foreign rulers of north-western India like the later Kushanas and the Saka chief and residents of different island countries including Simhala or Sri Lanka pleased him by "self-surrender, offering (their own) daughters in marriage, and a request for the administration of their own districts and provinces". This means that they remained

independent but their independence had to be approved by Samudragupta.

Q. List five minor powers in north India at the beginning of the fourth century A.D.

A. # Kushana and his successors, in Afghanistan, Kashmir and western Punjab.

# The Madras were located in Punjab

# The Yaudheyas were extremely powerful with their center in present-day Haryana

# the Malavas were located in Rajasthan

# the Nagas who became very powerful in Mathura

Q. Discuss in about ten lines the military campaigns of Chandragupta-11.

A. Chandragupta 2 ascended the throne at a time when there were problems emerging again and he had to lead military campaigns to establish Gupta supremacy once again. He defeated the Saka king Rudrasimha-3 and annexed his kingdom. This brought an end to Saka Kshatrapa rule in western India and added the regions of

Gujarat, Kathiawad and west Malwa to the Gupta empire. Chandra crossed the Sindhu region of seven rivers and defeated Valhikas (identified with Bactria). Chandragupta's also held successful military campaigns against enemies from Vanga (Bengal). On the basis of this evidence, it can be suggested that Chandragupta-I1

was able to extend the frontiers of the Gupta empire to western, north-western and eastern India.

Q. Discuss in about ten lines the factors which brought about the disintegration of the Gupta empire.

A. Huna Invasion - From the Time of Kumaragupta-I the north-west borders had been threatened by the Hunas a Central Asian tribe which was successfully moving in different directions and was establishing pockets of rule in northwestern, northern and western India but we’re successfully beaten however towards the end of the

fifth century A.D. the Huna chief Tormana was able to establish his authority over large parts of western India and in central India. Mihirakula, his son, further extended the dominions. Thus, the Huna attacks caused a major blow to the Gupta authority particularly in northern and western regions of the empire.

Administrative Weaknesses

The policy adopted by the Guptas in the conquered areas was to restore the authority of local chiefs or kings once they had accepted Gupta suzerainty. In fact, no efforts were made to impose strict and effective control over these regions. Hence it was natural that whenever there was a crisis of succession or a weak monarchy

within the Gupta empire these local chiefs would reestablish their independent authority. This created a problem for almost every Gupta King who had to reinforce his authority. The constant military campaigns were a strain on the state treasury. Towards the end of the fifth century A.D. and beginning of sixth century A.D. taking advantage of the weak Gupta emperors, many regional powers re-asserted their authority, and in due course declared their independence. The Guptas issued land grants to the Brahamana donees & in this process surrendered the revenue & administrative rights in favor of the donees. Gupta empire followed the Sarnanta system in which the Samanthas or minor rulers, who ruled as subordinates to the central authority, started to consolidate itself in the Gupta period. This is also believed to be the reason why Gupta's administrative structure became so loose.

Unit 33

Q. Write in about five lines about the revenue administration of Guptas.

A. Land revenue was the main source of the state's income besides the fines. The Gupta kings maintained a regular department for the proper survey and measurement of land as well as for the collection of land revenue. Both Kalidasa and the author of the Narada-Smriti state that one-sixth of the produce should be claimed as the royal revenue. Besides this, there was the Uparikara which was levied on cloth, oil, etc.when taken from one city to another. The organization of traders had to pay a certain commercial tax (Sulka), the non-payment of which resulted in the cancellation of the right to trade and a fine amounting to eight times the original Sulka. The King had a right to forced labor (Visthi), Bali and many other types of contributions. The King's treasury had a right to treasure troves (treasures in the forms of coin-hoards, jewels or other valuable objects, discovered from below the earth accidentally), digging of mines and manufacture of salt.

Q. Write in about ten lines the powers and duties of the King.

A. # It was the King's duty to decide the policy of the state during war and peace. For instance, Samudragupta was prudent enough to reinstate the monarchs of dukshinupurhu in their original kingdoms.

# It was considered a prime duty of the monarch to protect his countrymen from any invasion.

# The King was to lead the army in case of war. This is demonstrated through the campaigns of Samudragupta and Chandragupta-11.

# The King was also expected to support the Brahmanas, Sramanas and all others who needed his protection.

# He was also supposed to venerate the learned and religious people and give them every possible help.

# As the supreme judge he looked after the administration of justice according to religious precepts and existing customs.

# It was the duty of the King to appoint his central and provincial officers.

# The Prayagaprasasti as well as the Apratigha type coins of Kumaragupta-I point to the appointment of a successor to the throne by the reigning King. Thus in the Gupta empire, the King remained the central figure of administration and all powers vested in him. He is the supreme authority and the most powerful.

Q.  Mention the methods adopted for irrigation during this period.

A.  In the Gupta period, various types of land are mentioned in the inscriptions; land under cultivation was usually called Kshetra, Lands not under cultivation were called as Khila, Aprahata, etc., and inscriptions give the impression that uncultivated land was being regularly brought under cultivation. Emphasis was given on improving the irrigation facilities for increasing the cultivation. The Sudarsana reservoir(Tadaga) in Saurashtra in Gujarat which was originally built in the Maurya period and repaired by Rudradaman (middle of the second century A.D.) was one such example. It was

again severely damaged in the time of Skandagupta. Parnadatta, his newly appointed governor of Saurashtra and Parnadatta's son Chakrapalita, undertook the repair of the reservoir during this time. Another method for irrigation was to draw water from wells and supply the water to the fields through carefully prepared channels. In regions like Bengal, rainwater was collected in ponds and other types of reservoirs which was used for cultivation similarly in peninsular India, tank irrigation became gradually the norm. There were thus different systems of irrigation and the role of the state was only marginal in providing irrigation facilities to farmers. The

farmers, of course, depended mainly on rainfall.

Q. Discuss in about five lines the sources which refer to crafts and craftsmen

A. Crafts production covered a very wide range of items. There were items of ordinary domestic use like earthen pots, items of furniture, baskets, metal tools for domestic use and so on; simultaneously a wide variety of luxury items including jewelry made of gold, silver, and precious stones; objects made of ivory; fine clothes of cotton and silk and other costly items had to be made available to the affluent sections of people. Texts like Amarakosha and Brihat Samhita which are generally dated to this period, list many items, give their Sanskrit names and also mention different categories of craftsmen who manufactured them. Another

inscription of the fifth century from Mandasor in western Malwa refers to a guild of silk-weavers who had migrated from south Gujarat and had settled in the Malwa region.

Q. Discuss the changes in the varna system in about ten lines.

A. Varna order was an ideal order and there were many groups in society whose varna identity could never be determined. Real society was different from the ideal society as suggested by the Varna system due to many reasons like each varna was assigned duty and was expected to perform it but it wasn’t the case in reality. The various foreign ruling families of the pre-Gupta period or Greek etc. were given the semi-kshatriya status (vratya Kshatriya) because they could not be considered to be of pure Kshatriya origin: similarly, fictitious origins were thought of for tribal groups

who came to be absorbed into the Brahmanical society. The Dharmasastras also speak of apadharma or conduct to be followed during periods of distress. This means that the varnas take to professions and duties not assigned to them when they found

it necessary to do so. In matters of the profession also the Dharmasastras thus recognized that the real society was different from their ideal society.

Unit 34

Q. List the main minor powers and the regions they ruled in north India in the sixth century A.D.

A. Yasodharman - Yasodharman rose to power in about 528 A.D. and continued to rule till 532 A.D. Two stone pillar inscriptions from Mandasor in Madhya Pradesh dated 543A.D suggests the victories of Yasodharman. The inscription describes him as the victor of all those lands which had not been subdued even by the Guptas.

The Maukharis

The Maukharis were an old family and references to them in Patanjali's work is found. The Maukharis became powerful towards the end of the 5th century A.D. as the Harsha inscription of 554 A.D. mentions the rise of Yajnavarman from Gaya during this period. The Maukharis held sway over modem U.P. and parts of Magadha.

The Later Guptas

From around the middle of the sixth century A.D. till about 675 A.D. the kings who ruled Magadha were known as Magadha Guptas or Later Guptas. The other important states that emerged in the post-Gupta period were those of the:

# Maitras of Valabhi in Gujarat

# Gurjaras in Rajputana and Gujarat

# Gaudas in Bengal

# Varmans in Kamrup (Assam)

# Mana and Sailodbhava families in Orissa.

Q. Write in about ten lines the relation of Harsha with other powers.

A. Harsha ascended the throne of Thaneshwar around 606 A.D. He entered into an alliance with Bhaskarvarman-the king of Pragjyaotisha (Assam) as both had a common enemy in Sasanka, the king of Gauda (Bengal). Both of them jointly conducted campaigns in Bengal and other parts of eastern India. Harsha fought the rulers of Valabhi and Gurjaras in the west, Chalukyas in the Deccan and Magadha and Gauda in the east. The Maitrakas of Valabhi had emerged as a strong power in the Saurashtra region of Gujarat. Harsha's hostilities with Valabhis ended through a matrimonial alliance. The Valabhis remained a strong power during the reign of Harsha. Pulakasin 2, the Chalukya ruler of Badami of Karnataka were not defeated by Harsha. Harsha could not achieve success against Pulakesin 11. Harsha had diplomatic relations with the Chinese for his contemporary T'ang the emperor sent three embassies to his court.

Q. What was the political condition in north India in the post-Harsha period?

A. In the post-Harsha period, many regions of the Indian subcontinent saw the beginnings of stable state structures. These were not all-India empires and they didn’t last long, but they represented the beginnings of regional political structures. In Kashmir, Durlabhavardhan established a dynasty known as Karakota. His grandson Chandrapida checked the entry of the Arabs in Kashmir thus for the first time the functioning of a local state system emerged. In Bengal, the emergence of Pala power from the middle of the eighth century A.D. and its duration for several centuries marked a new phase in the political history of the region. Similarly, in Western India, covering both Rajasthan and Gujarat, emerged many new ruling families like the Gurjara Pratiharas, Guhilas, the Chahamanas and others who came to be considered as different clans of the Rajputs who dominated the political scene of western India for centuries. Thus, the decline of Gupta power and the collapse of Harsha's empire did not mean lead to political anarchy. After the end of these empires, the regional

powers consolidated themselves and played important roles in the history of subsequent periods.

Unit 35

Q. What do you know about the Chalukyas, Pallavas, and Pandyas?

A. From the mid-sixth century A.D., the political scene in the Deccan and south India was dominated by three powers: the Chalukyas of Badami, the Pallavas of Kanchi, and the Pandyas of Madura.

The Chalukyas

The Chalukyas became a sovereign power with Pulakesin-I. He laid foundations of his kingdom by making the hill near Badami in the Bijapur district of Karnataka into a strong, fortress in 543-44 A.D. and performed a horse sacrifice. Kadambas kingdom was annexed and also the Mauryas of Konkan (the coastal strip of Maharashtra)

were subjugated by his successors. With the expeditions of Pulakesin-2, the Chalukyas became the Paramount power in the Deccan as the Western Gangas and the Alupas in the south and the Latas, Malavas, & Gurjaras in the north offered them submission to him. The army of Pulakesin-I1 checked the forces of Harshavardhana on the banks of the Narmada. Pulakesin-I1 also defeated the Vishnukundins of Andhra delta and younger brother Vishnuvardhana started his own kingdom the Chalukyas of Vengi or Eastern Chalukyas, who remained in control of the area for

more than five hundred years.

The Pallavas

The rise of the Pallavas began with Simhavishnu about the middle of tile sixth century A.D. He put an end to the Kalabhra Interregnum in Tandaimandalam (Kanchi Region), and extended his kingdom southward up to the Kaveri delta. He was

succeeded by Mahendravarman-I, who annexed territories in the north up to the river Krishna. Thus by the middle of the seventh century A.D., the Pallavas had set up a powerful regional kingdom in south India. By the early tenth century A.D., the Pallava rule came to an end when Aparajata was defeated by Aditya Chola-I.

The Pandyas

The Pandyas come to light with king Kadungon towards the close of the sixth century A.D. when he suppressed the Kalabhras. The Pandyas ruled in the southernmost districts of Tamilnadu, with the Vaigai river basis as the heartland of the kingdom. They constantly tried to extend their sway over the Kaveri delta in the north and

Cera country (Kerala) in the southwest.

Q. Discuss the nature of conflicts amongst the powers of south India. What role
did the minor kings play in it?
A. This period is marked by frequent wars between the Chalukyas of Badami and
the Pallavas, and between Pandyas and the Pallavas. Hostilities began with the
raid of Chalukyas Pulakesin-11, who defeated Mahendravarman and occupied the
northern part of Pallava kingdom. The Pallavas had to engage in battles with the
Pandyas too. In these conflicts it was always the Pallavas who were the target of
attack. This was not just because they were situated between the Chalukyas and the
Pandyas, but mainly because they were the most prosperous of all. It is significant
that it was always the Chalukyas who attacked the Pallavas and that the Pallavas
concerned themselves mainly with driving them back into their territory. The only
exception was the raid of Narasimhavarman-I into Chalukyan kingdom and his
occupation of its capital. The same is true of the Pandyas, who fought repeatedly
with the Pallavas for the control of the Kaveri delta.
The lesser kings and chieftains took part in the conflict of the regional kingdoms
as subordinate allies of one or the other of these powers.These subordinate allies
shared not only in the plunder but could add new areas to their realm as well.
Q. Highlight the relations' between different categories of rulers.
A. There are two views about the relations between powerful kings, and minor
kings and chieftains. First, it is said that smaller kings and chieftains regarded a big
king, especially the Pallavas, as their overlord on religious grounds. The Pallava kings
used to participate in elaborate religious ceremonies which gave them a high ritual
status. It was this high ritual status that was respected by lesser kings and chiefs. But
this theory isn’t supported by historical evidences .
The second view states that these smaller kings and chieftains as "subordinate ally"
to describe the relation of minor political powers with the major ones.
Q. Discuss the role of local associations in administration.
A. Local administration through the corporate units like Nanadesis, the
Manigramam etc. greatly lightened the burden of the government. It not only gave a
chance to population to air its grievances and problems, but also fixed responsibility
on the people themselves for redressing the grievances and solving the problems.
This strengthened the basis of the state by minimising opposition to it as the
people could not hold the government responsible for these matters.
That is why the Pallava kings never try to encroach upon the functioning of the
local autonomous corporate groups instead they seek to strengthen their own base
by bringing in brahmanas and creating privileged brahmana settlements by making
landgrants to brahmanas, either directly (called brahmadaya or in the name of a
temple (called devadana). These brahmana settlements were created all over the
core areas of the Pallava kingdom. The village assembly of brahmanas was called
sabha or mahasabha which developed the system of governance through
committees. . It became a hallmark of self-government in brahmana settlements in
south India. The sabha managed a number of tasks mostly through these
committees-maintenance of tanks and roads, management of charitable donations

and of temple affairs, and regulation of irrigation rights.

EHI - 02

6th Part 

Block 7
Unit 27- Unit 28

Q. How did different categories of chiefdoms co-exist and interact?

A. There were three different kinds of chiefdoms in Tamilaham. They were of the kizar (little chiefs), velir (bigger chiefs) and vedar (the biggest chiefs) categories of chiefs. 

The Kizar were headmen of small villages (Ur), generally bound by kinship. The Chera, Chola, and Pandya were the three principal ruling houses of the biggest category of chiefs. They were known as Muvendar. They had several lesser chiefs under their service and paying tributes (tiarai). There was no notion of a demarcated

territory. The political authority functioned through control over peoples rather than privileges over basic resources. All chiefs, big and small, had to resort to plunder raids for satisfying the needs of their people. The chiefs redistributed the booty among their warriors, bards, and medicants besides their own kinsmen. The

institution of gift-giving (Kodai) was integral to the practice of booty redistribution. Gift-giving was considered to be the most important responsibility of any chief. Plunder raids and booty redistribution thus became the characteristic feature of the contemporary polity. Chiefs of all kinds indulged in plundering against one another. Lesser chiefs joined hands with the big ones in plunder campaigns and obtained their shares of booty. Cattle and grain constituted the routine items of booty. A state presupposes the existence of standing militia, regular taxation, bureaucracy, and

local administrative bodies. These had not evolved as yet. Nonetheless, the authority of the Muvendar was significantly different from that of the other categories of chiefs. Their subjugation of lesser chiefs was an ongoing process. The main concern of all the three ruling groups- Cheras, Cholas, and Pandyas was the subordination of velir chiefs who were next in importance. Apart from direct combats, the bigger chiefs tried to gain access to the velir domains through marriage relations also. There were

several instances of the Cheras. Cholas, and Pandyas taking their brides from velir families. In the case of the village chiefs of strategic areas, the bigger chiefs adopted the method of military control. They were subjugated and made subservient to the

bigger chiefs. Muvendar had several such subjugated chiefs as their subordinates serving them in plunder raids. The Muvendar was the most powerful political authority in contemporary Tamizakam. Next to them was the political authority of velir. The village chiefs of Kizar constituted the primary level of political authority. Although this gives the impression of a political hierarchy, there was no determinate chain of political control uniting these three levels of political authority. The integration of the lesser chiefs was in progress under the subjugative and marital policies of Muvendar. But a unified political system was still in the making. The traditional authority over resident communities based on kinship remained fundamental to contemporary political control. Traditional assembly of elders transacted the day to day affairs in

every settlement.

Unit 29

Q. Write three features of the barter system in ancient south India.

A. In the barter system of the far south, the following features can be noted:

i) Most of the items of exchange were of consumption articles.

ii) The exchange was not profit-oriented

iii) As in the case of production, distribution also was subsistence-oriented.

Barter was the most common mode of transaction in the context of the local exchange. Most of the items of barter were for immediate consumption. Salt, fish, paddy, dairy products, roots, venison, honey, and toddy were the regular items of barter in the far

south.

Q. Write about three lines on the Salt Caravans in Tamilaham.

A. Salt making was done exclusively by the community of Paratavas mentioned in the Sangam region as living in the nytal (coastal) region, and so they had to devote their whole time for these activities. The salt merchants were known as umanas in

Tamilaham. In the Coastal areas and the neighboring villages, the umana hawker girls carried salt in head loads and bartered it mainly with paddy. In the interior rural villages, salt was taken by the umanas. Big bags of salt were transported in carts drawn by bullocks or asses. The salt merchants moved in large groups. These salt caravans were called umanchathu. They bartered salt for the local products. Thus the umanchathu acted as the collectors of merchandise from different parts of the regions. The umanas moved in caravans with their families. No organization other than the family is known to have existed among the salt merchants. Most of the routes passed through dense forests and over hills where wild tribes lived. The wayside robbery was a perpetual threat to the merchants and the caravans employed guards of their own, in the absence of effective protection from the rulers.

Q. Write three lines on the local coins in South India.

A. Local coins of different varieties were prevalent in different regions in peninsular India. Ancient Tamil literature speaks about some of the coins like Kasu, Kanam, Pon and Ven Pon. In the Deccan, inscriptions refer to the use of Kahapanas which were silver coins locally minted and to Suvarnas which refer to gold coins either of the Romans or the Kushans. From the second century B.C. Kings of small localities, Maharathi and other families started minting coins in their own name. To these were added coins of Satavahana rulers minted in different metals from the

first century B.C. onward.

Q. Write seven lines on the Roman Coins and their use in South India.

A. The Roman coins were mostly in gold and silver while Copper coins were also in circulation although in small numbers. Roman money was brought to purchase items that were in demand in the west like ivory, spices, scented wood, etc. These items could not be procured by exchanging Roman things in bulk in the barter system and needs the money to procure items. Big transactions were done by means of gold coins while Silver coins were used for comparatively small purchases. The Roman coins were accepted in the form of bullion as they were made of Gold and Silver. In south India, these coins were used as ornaments too.

Q. Write five lines on the relations between the monasteries and the traders

A. Some of the famous ancient Buddhist cave sites and religious centers in the Deccan were situated on trade routes. These religious centers were helpful in many ways to the merchant-caravans. Besides providing food and shelter they even issued loans thus were facilitating the trading. The rulers also showed interest in the conditions of the routes. They donated liberally to Buddhist religious establishments which were located on the routes. The

relationship between rulers, commercial groups & Buddhist monastic establishments was responsible for introducing important changes in society and the economy of the region.

Q. Write five lines on the impact of trade and Urbanism on the local traders and artisans

A. The participation of local trading groups was necessary also for long-distance trade. So the advantage of this trade filtered down to the other levels of society. The wealth & prosperity of the artisans, craftsmen, and traders are reflected in their donations to the Buddhist monasteries. The guild organizations of artisans and

traders were instrumental in breaking old kinship ties and introducing a new type of relations in the production of handicrafts and in trading ventures. The relationship between rulers, commercial groups and Buddhist monastic establishments was responsible for introducing important changes in society and

the economy of the Deccan.

Unit 31

Q. What do you know about the literary conventions of the Tamil bardic tradition?

A. The Tamil heroic poems are called the Sangam literature since they were collected and classified by the Sangam which was an academy of scholars. Ettuttogai or the eight collections of poems & Pattupattu or the ten idylls are the two categories of anthologies that comprise the heroic poems. Narrinai, Kuruntokai, Ainkurunuru, Patirruppattu, etc. are the few examples of anthologies grouped under Ettuttokai, Mullaippattu, Madurikkanj, Kurunjippattu, etc. are the example of anthologies under Pattupattu. The anthologies are divided into akam, dealing with themes of subjective experience like love or affection, and Puram, dealing with themes of objectification like raid or plunder. Both the above categories of anthologies comprise collections of poems based on akam and Puram themes.

Akananuru, a collection of four hundred poems based on akam themes and Purananuru, a similar collection based on puram themes are two examples of the Ettuttogai category. In the same manner, there are examples of both akam and Puram anthologies in the Pattupattu category. Apart from the heroic anthologies,

the classified corpus of Sangam literature includes Tolkappiyam, a treatise on Tamil grammar and Patinenkizkanakku, the eighteen didactic texts also. The famous Tirukkural by Tiruvalluvar is one of the eighteen didactic texts. Both Tolkappiya and Patinenkizkanakku were composed after most of the Ettuttogai and Pattupattu

poems had been composed. The diction and the techniques of composition of the heroic anthologies keep them distinct from other texts that are later.

EHI - 02

5th Part 

Unit 23

Q. Who were the Sungas? Give an outline of their rule.

A. The Sungas was a brahmana family belonged to the region of Ujjain in Western India, where they worked as officials under the Maurya Kings. The founder of the Sunga dynasty was Pushyamitra Sunga who assassinated the last of the Maurya Kings Brihadratha in 180 B.C. This is corroborated by Bana, the Sanskrit prose writer and court poet of Harshvardhana of Kanauj. The Ayodhya inscription of Dhanadeva describes Pushyamitra as an orthodox Brahmin and indulging in asvamedha or horse sacrifice, a Vedic ritual symbolizing royal glory. Pushyamitra controls a vast territory

and according to Puranas, his reign continued for 36 years who was succeeded by his son Agnimitra. The last Sunga King was Devabhuti. He was the fourth ruler of the line and according to Banabhatta, author of Harsha-Charita he fell victim to the conspiracy of his brahmana minister Vasudeva. Thus, the Sunga line came to an end around 75 B.C.

Q. What was the significance of the rule of the Sakas in northwest India?

A. The Sakas are referred to also as Scythians. In the Indian context, the sources sometimes mention the Scythians arid Parthians together as Saka-Pahlawa. The Sakas poured into India through the Bolan Pass from the central Asian region. Coins and other sources indicate that the Sakas divided themselves into many branches and settled in the lower Indus region. One branch of Sakas settled in Afghanistan.

Another line of the Sakas settled in Punjab with Taxila as the capital. There was another that ruled from Mathura. A fourth branch established itself in Western and Central India from where they continued their rule till about the fourth century A.D. The Sakas are credited with destroying and defeating the Greek rule in Northwestern India. The Sakas along with the Parthians introduced the Satrap system of government. Under this system, the kingdom was divided into provinces each under a military governor called Mahakshatrapa (great Satrap). Governors with lower status were called Kshatrapas (Satraps). These governors issued their own inscriptions and also minted their own coins. This is indicative of a more

independent status than was otherwise normal in an administrative set-up.

Q. What is the most important source for the reconstruction of the history between 200 B.C.-300 A.D.?

A. Apart from coins minted in this time period that gives vital information, Puranas and other texts like the Gargi Samhita, the Mahabhashya of Patanjali, the Divyavadana, the Malavikagnimitra of Kalidasa and the Harshacharita of Bana.

Evidence of Sunga history comes to us also from the inscriptions from Ayodhya, Vidisa, and Bharhut. Inscriptions written in Kharosthi script are found in large numbers in this period in the region of Gandhara and there are many Kharosthi documents found in Central Asia as well. In the Buddhist sources too, we find evidence regarding this period. For example, the Pali work Milinda-Panha (The questions of Milinda) bears on the Yavana King Menander and on Buddhism in this period.

Q. Write short notes on a) Impact of Central Asian Contact.

A.The significance of contact with Central Asia is widespread and in different spheres -

Trade & Technology - Trade contacts with Afghanistan were already existing but now Central Asia also opened up to trade with new routes. One of these routes became famous as the old Silk Route. The Kushanas controlled the silk route which started from China and passed through Central Asia and Afghanistan and Western Asia. This route was a source of great income to the Kushanas. They levied tolls from the

traders. India received a good deal of gold from the Roman Empire. Traders of different ethnic origins established trading stations and colonies from which the merchants operated. Examples of such places are Kashgar, Yarkand, Khotan, Miran, etc. New elements in cavalry and techniques of war were introduced in India. The Central Asians also brought in the cap, helmet, and boots that were used by the warriors.

Material Remains - New kinds of techniques were added to the already existing techniques for structures, pottery, and coins. Excavations have revealed several layers of structures in Northern India. They point to the use of burnt bricks for both the floor and the roof. Brick wells may also have been introduced during this period. The pottery of this period is redware, both plain and polished, with sometimes medium and sometimes fine fabric.

Polity - The Sakas and the Kushana put great emphasis on the notion of the divine origin of kingship. The Kushana kings were referred to as Sons of God. The Sakas had introduced the satrap system in the administrative set-up. The entire empire was divided into satraps. Some of the foreign rulers also introduced the practice of hereditary dual rule which meant two kings, holding higher and lower status, ruling in the same kingdom at the same time. For example, a father and son would rule simultaneously. The practice of military governorship was also introduced probably by the Greeks. These governors were known by the title of Strategos. They were important for two reasons :

(a)for maintaining the power of the rulers over the indigenous people and

(b) for blocking invasions from the northwest.

Religion and Art Form - The foreigners adapted to Indian ideas and forms of worship. kings like Menander and Kanishka were converted to Buddhism. Some of the rulers

were worshippers of Vishnu; others of Siva. Some Kushana rulers worshipped both Siva and Buddha and the images of these two Gods appeared on some of the Kushana coins. The foreign rulers were also patrons of Indian art and literature.

b) Assimilation of the foreigners into the Indian mainstream.

A. Above answer & Foreign rulers like Kushanas controlled vast territories & they fully integrated with Indian mainstream. Although their empire lasted for about one century and a little

more, their connection with India, their assimilation into Indian society as well as their contribution to Indian culture left a deep impression on the Indian mind. Like the Sakas and Pahlavas, they too are mentioned in Epic, Puranic and other literature. The Kushanas were particularly important as their empire became a meeting point of civilizations of the Mediterranean world, Westem Asia, Central Asia, China, and India. Kanishka I one of the Kushana rulers is an important figure in the history of Buddhism as being one of its great patrons. He sponsored the fourth Buddhist council during

his reign to discuss matters relating to Buddhist theology and doctrine. The doctrines of the Mahayana form of Buddhism were finalized at the council. Missionary activity was given an impetus and during his period Buddhist monks started traveling to Central Asia and to China. Kanishka was also a patron of art and Sanskrit literature.

Unit 24

Q. How would you account for the increase in trade in the post-Mauryan period?

A. Some of the reasons were -

# Agriculture generating enough surplus during that period. It had created such social classes which required varieties of items that could be acquired only through trade. Agricultural produce was itself now an item of trade because the majority of people living in cities did not produce their own food.

# Both Buddhism and Jainism which had a large following encouraged the accumulation and reinvestment of wealth and trade as was one of the occupations held in high regard. Hence we find that there was a close relationship between the traders and the Buddhist Sangha and Buddhist monastic establishments were located at important points along trade routes further facilitating the trade.

# The expansion of urban centers meant that there was a growing class of consumers for subsistence as well as luxury goods. Together with these internal factors was an increased demand from outside for various Indian goods. Two major empires that arose at this time were the Roman Empire in the west and the later Han Empire in China. Within the Roman Empire, there was greater demand for products of the east such as spices, aromatic woods, etc. Similarly, the rulers of the later Han Empire adopted an encouraging approach

towards merchants and this resulted in an acceleration of contacts between India, Central Asia, and China.

Q. Describe the importance of the Ganga valley in the early historical period.

A. The Ganga rises in the Himalayas and in its journey to the Bay of Bengal it receives the waters of many tributaries along the way. These tributaries such as the Yamuna, Gomati, Ghagara, Gandak, etc. add to the flow of water in the Ganga with the result that even in the summer months enough water is available for irrigation and agriculture. The south-west monsoons bring rainfall mainly to the middle and lower Ganga valley & the region is fertile & capable of supporting large populations. Not only is the Ganga valley agriculturally productive but the river itself is also navigable along its length. From ancient times there has been regular traffic of men and commodities on the Ganga and the river has been the lifeline of the north, connecting the cities of the northwest with those near the coast.

Q. According to the Greek text Periplus, which were the items imported into, and exported out of India?         A. The imports in India included brocades, coral, frankincense, glass vessels, money, and some wine. The Romans are famous for technological improvements

that they made in the manufacture of glass which was in demand in India. In exchange for these, the exports from India were spices, precious stones like turquoise, lapis lazuli and carnelian and Chinese silk and yarn.

Q. Why were the Chinese goods being traded from China to Europe through India?

A. The reason for this was the political situation. The Parthians were powerful rulers along the north-western boundary of the Indian sub-continent. There was constant hostility between them and the Roman Empire and as a result, overland routes between China and the west were disrupted. Many of the products from China were hence traded along the land route to India.

Unit 25

Q. Explain the basic aspects of Mahayanism.

A. Mahayana belief, first preached by a Buddhist sect called Mahasanghika, that every being could aspire to Buddhahood and could attain it-through various stages as Bodhisattva. One could become a Bodhisattva by performing the meritorious acts or Paramitas. Other features associated with Mahayana faith are: Belief in'sunyata or void or non-reality of objects; belief in mantras, belief in numerous Buddhas and

Bodhisattvas and the practice of worshipping gods and goddesses. Whereas earlier Buddha was considered as a teacher only, now in the Mahayana sect he was worshiped as God. This brought about a change in the form in which he was worshiped. For example, earlier in sculpture, he has represented through a pair of footprints; a white elephant and a flower, etc. But now people began to worship Buddha images and idols.

Q. Write a note in about five lines on important Jaina centers.

A. Among the many Jaina centers, Rajagriha or Rajgir developed into an important center during the first and second centuries A.D. Vajra Muni of the Svetambara sect

was associated with this place. Mathura was another important center. From the sculptures found in Mathura and

from the dedicated inscriptions on them, it is evident that the merchant class patronized Jainism here on a significant scale. It continued to be an important center of Jainism for many centuries. According to a late tradition. Ujjain was another important center of Jainism in this period. In the northwest, Sirkap in Taxila grew into a Jaina center from the early centuries of the Christian era in addition to being a major Buddhist center. It had a large Jain establishment.

Similarly, Broach and Sopara on the western coast were great centers and monks frequented there. In Orissa, Udayagiri and Khandagiri hills near Bhuvaneswar were other centers from the Mauryan times, and they continued to flourish even after the rule of Kharavela. In the Tamil country, Madurai and Sittannavasal may be considered as important

centers. Large Jaina establishments existed at these places in the second century B.C. and afterward.

Q. Discuss the important aspects of Vaishnavism in 100 words.

A. Vaishnavism was another popular sect of Brahmanism followed by a larger group of people in all parts of India. The principal deity of this sect was Vishnu who is referred to as the protector in the Brahmanical religion. The cult of Vishnu in the early period was known by the name Bhagavatism, which was developed from the Vedic cult Vasudeva-Krishna. Bhagavatism owed its origin to the Upanishads. It arose around the Mathura region. It stressed upon the idea of a supreme god called 'Hari' and sacrifices & other rituals were regarded as of minor importance. Devotion to Vishnu was considered as the supreme virtue. Initially, it was confined to the Mathura region but later Inscriptions testifying to the worship of Vasudeva are found in Maharashtra, Rajputana and Central India. In the Tamil country also the worship of Vishnu was very popular. His different qualities and attributes are mentioned in the Tamil Sangam works. He is identified

with Krishna. He was also worshiped in his avatars (incarnations) as Rama and Balarama. Vishnu, the chief deity of the Vaishnava sect, had manifested himself in many avatars. Vishnu was thus worshiped also in his avatar forms. Krishna, Rama & Balarama was the most respected avatars of Vishnu. But other avatars like Narasimha and Varaha were also worshiped.

Q. Write about the new developments in Brahmanism during this period.

A. Brahmanism too acquired many new features during this period. The central feature of this was the worship of gods and goddesses and not the performance of sacrifices. Two important sects Shivaism and Vaishnavism rose to prominence during this period. The characteristic changes apparent in this period were:

# a the shift from the pure ritual to bhakti or devotion, and

# assimilation of some of the local traditions into the Brahmanical religion. Vaishnavism absorbed a number of different gods like the Vedic Vishnu. The epic heroes Rama and Krishna were accepted and they gained an enviable position among the Brahmanical deities. The Tamil deities, mentioned in the Sangam literature, were adopted into the Brahmanical faith. In the same way, some of the local deities of north India were also admitted into the Brahrnanical pantheon. Among them, Brahma, Agni, Surya, and Indra were some of the popular ones. The four guardian deities (dikpalas) namely, Yama, Varuna, Kubera, and Vasava were also worshipped. Beside these:

# Animals like elephant, horse, and cow were worshiped,

# The Naga or Serpent worship was popular in. almost all parts of the country, and

# Many trees and tree spirits were also worshiped.

Unit 26

Q. Discuss in about five lines the main features of Mauryan Art.

A. During the Mauryan period, sculpture and architecture had reached a developed stage. The Asokan pillars; the animals and carvings on the pillars - all represent mature art forms. A unique feature of the specimens of Mauryan art fashioned in

stone is the polish and the smooth, glassy surface not to be found during any other period. In addition to the animal figures, the most famous piece of art is the figure of Yakshini from Didarganj, Patna. This superb art piece tells us about the hairstyle, ornaments, and dress of women during that period. The Mauryan levels at sites which have been excavated have yielded a large number of terracotta figurines.

Q. What is a Stupa? Discuss the main characteristics of Sanchi Stupa.

A. The practice of preserving the remains of an important personality below accumulated earth was long in existence. Buddhist art adopted this practice and the structure built over such a site was known as Stupa. The Stupas had the shape of a bowl turned upside down. At the top, which was a bit flat, used to be its harmika, i.e. the abode of the Gods. It was here that the urns containing the remains of the

Buddha or a great personality connected with the religion was placed in a gold or silver casket.

Sanchi Stupa - has three Stupas all with gateways around them. But the most famous is the Great Stupa which was originally made of brick in Asoka's time (C. 250 B.C.). During the Sunga period, this was later on nearly doubled in circumference in 150 B.C. The bricks of Asokan times were replaced by stones, and a 'Vedika' was also constructed around it. The northern gate and the panels depict stories from the Jatakas. The reliefs of Sanchi display (among other representations) the following quite prominently :

1) The four great events of the Buddha's life, i.e. birth, attainment of knowledge, dharmachakra - pravartana and Mahaparinirvana.

2) Representations of birds and animals like lion, elephant, camel, ox, etc. are abundant. Some of the animals are shown with riders in heavy coats and boots.

3) Lotus and wishing-vines have been prominently and beautifully carved out as ornamentation, and

4) Unique representation of forest animals in a manner that looks as if the whole animal world turned out to worship the Buddha.

Q. Discuss in about ten lines the main characteristics of Gandhara art.

A. Gandhara Art which was mainly Buddhist was profoundly influenced by Hellenistic art. The chief patrons of Gandhara art were the Sakas and the Kusanas. Gandhara art can be divided into two schools early and later. During the early school, which existed during the first and second century A.D., blue-grey schist stone was used to make idols. However, in the later school instead of schist stone, mud, lime, pilaster, and stucco were used to make the idols. These idols give a realistic representation of the human figure clearly indicating limbs and other organs of the body. They are depicted with sharp features and anatomical accuracy. Besides idols, we find beautiful carvings on reliefs the theme being the life of Buddha and Bodhisattvas. The main centers from where the art pieces of Gandhara School have been found are Jalalabad, Hadda, Bamaran, Begram, and Taxila.

Q. Give such examples of art which demonstrate that besides religious themes, political personalities had drawn the sculptor's attention. 

A. Mathura Art - The Mat village in Mathura yielded big images of kushana kings and other notables like Kanishka, Wima, and Chastana. The idea of building reliquaries or structures for housing portrait-statues of rulers and other dignitaries of the State came from Central Asia. This was done to give the rulers a divine status. A bronze reliquary was recovered from the sidewalls of the Stupa at Shah-Ji-kidheri. It depicts Buddha, Kusana kings and flying geese (symbolic of wandering monks).

Amravati Art - Similar to the depiction of Kushana kings from Mathura in the form of statues, we find the kings and princes as themes represented in Amaravati sculpture

also. However, at Amaravati, they are not individual statues but are arts of a narrative. For example, the story of King Udayana and his queen is depicted on relief, a relief medallion depicts a court scene where the king is receiving presents, and in relief, the panel has depicted a scene showing a king on the march, with elephants, horse riders and footmen.