EHI - 4

13th Part

Q.  Discuss in brief the role of merchants, Sarraf and brokers in commercial activities.                                                       

A.  Brokers - Brokers worked as middlemen in various commercial activities and transactions. With increasing inter-regional and foreign trade they became crucial. Merchants from foreign lands and distant regions heavily depended on them. The need for brokers in India was mainly due to (i) centres of production for the same commodities were scattered all over the country; (ii) individual output of these centres was small (some centres specialised in particular commodities only), and (iii) large number of buyers competing for the same commodities in the same markets. Brokers' fees or commission was not strictly fixed. It depended on the commodity and the efforts of the broker to strike the deal or the labour involved in procuring the commodity. Besides helping their clients in procuring and selling goods, the brokers played a key role in the organisation of production. Most of the money advanced (dadni) to the artisans were made through brokers. 

Q.  Give a detailed account of inland and foreign trade under the Mughals.    

Q.  Discuss briefly the nature of inland trade during the 16-17th centuries.    

A. Inland trade is at local, regional, inter-regional levels and coastal trade.

Coastal Trade - Because of long distances and slow-moving transport system interregional trade was also conducted through the sea route involving a large number of coastal areas. This trade was most prominent on the western coast. The eastern coast also had substantial trading operations. On the western coast between May and September, the merchant boats in convoys under protection plied two or three times between Goa and Cochin and Goa and Cambay. They carried stuff like wheat, oil, pulses, sugar, textiles and miscellaneous other items. Ships coming from Malacca and the east were usually joined somewhere off Ceylon by coasting boats from Bengal and the Coromandal coast, and the whole fleet was convoyed under protection to Cochin. Boats laden with copper, zinc, tin, tobacco, spices and chintz came from Coromandal coast to the coastal towns of Bengal. Coromandal coast, in turn, received copper, mercury, cinnabar, pepper etc., from Gujarat, and spices from Malabar.

Foreign Trade -  For centuries India had maintained trading relations with other countries. During the 16th and 17th centuries also India had a flourishing trade with a large number of foreign countries. Foreign trade during this period increased substantially with the coming of the Europeans. Most of this trade was in the form of exports of Indian goods. The imports were very small. Exports included 

Textiles, saltpetre and indigo formed the major share of Indian exports. Other important items were sugar, opium spices and other sundry commodities.

Textiles -  textile production in India had reached new heights during this period. The increasing exports contributed to the increase in production. Before the coming of the Europeans, the main purchasers of Indian cotton textiles were the Mughals, Khorasanis, Iraqis and Armenians who carried them to Central Asia, Persia and Turkey. These goods purchased from all parts of India were taken by land route via Lahore. Later, Dutch, English companies also joined in and transported textiles through the sea. 

Saltpetre - Saltpetre was one of the important ingredients for making gunpowder was much in demand in Europe. In the 17th century, the Dutch started exporting it from Coromandal. Soon the English also followed.

Indigo - Indigo for blue dye was produced in most of northern India - Punjab, Sind and Gujarat. The indigo from Sarkhej (Gujarat) and Bayana (near Agra) was much in demand for exports. Prior to its supply to Europe, large quantities of this commodity

were exported to the Persian Gulf from Gujarat, and to Aleppo markets from Lahore.

        A large number of other commodities were exported from India. Opium was bought by the French, the Dutch and the English Companies. The main sources of supply were Bihar and Malwa. The Bengal sugar was also taken in bulk by the Dutch and English Companies. Ginger was exported to Europe by the Dutch. Turmeric, ginger and aniseed (saunf) were exported by the Armenians. 

Imports - 

 Silver was the main item of import as it was brought to finance the purchases of European Companies and other merchants from different parts of Europe and Asia. Copper, too, was imported in some quantity. Lead and mercury were other important commodities brought to India. Silk & porcelain from China were imported into India by the English. Good quality wine, carpets and perfumes were brought from Persia. Some items like cut glass, watches, silver utensils, woollen clothes and small weapons from Europe were in demand by the aristocracy in India. Horses from Central Asia were imported in large number for military uses.

Q.  Irrigation system under the Mughals                                 

A.  Indian agriculture was heavily dependent on rains for irrigation needs. Apart from rainwater, a number of devices were used for artificial irrigation. Well-irrigation was the most common method employed throughout the length and breadth of the country. A number of methods were used to lift water from wells depending on the water table and technology available. Lakes, tanks and reservoirs of water were also used uniformly in all parts of the country. In South India, this was the most prevalent method used for irrigation. Here the dams were made over the rivers. The massive Madag lake built by Vijaynagar rulers is a marvel of civil engineering of the time. Rajasthan is another region where large reservoirs for storing water abound. Rajsamand and Jaisamand were other important lakes built in Mewar in the 17th century. Similar reservoirs created with the help of dams in Marwar and Amber regions were Balsan and Mansagar respectively. Almost every cluster of villages had smaller reservoirs and lakes where rainwater was stored. In Northern plains, canals figure prominently as a means of irrigation. The Nahr Faiz built during Shah Jahan's reign was around 150 miles in length. It carried the water from the Yamuna to a large area. Another canal, around 100 miles long, was cut from the river Ravi near Lahore. 

Q.  Discuss the activities of the personnel of trade involved during the 17th century.                                                          

A. The personnel of trade involved during the 17th century were the merchants, Sarraf, moneylenders and brokers. The activities were - 

Merchants - During this period certain groups and castes dominated in particular regions. 

Banjaras - Banjaras were a trading group who carried on trade between villages and between villages and towns in a region and even at the inter-regional level. They were an important link for rural-urban trade. The Banjaras confined their trading activities to some limited commodities like grain, pulses, sugar, salt, etc. They procured a number of animals (mainly oxen to carry the load) and moved from place to place buying and selling goods. The Bdnras operated in many parts of North India, but there were other similar traders known by different names. The Nahmardis was one such group of traders operating in Sindh. Other such nomadic traders were the Bhotiyas operating between the Himalayas and plains. 

Baniyas - The Baniyas, unlike Banjaras, were involved in all sorts of trading activities. At the village level, they traded in grain and other agricultural produce. They also acted as moneylenders, giving loans to peasants and other people including state officials and nobles. In towns, they dealt in grain, textiles, gold, silver, jewels, spices and sundry other commodities. Some even owned ships for trading.

Q.  Provide an account of the various categories of merchant groups associated with trading activities during the 16th 17th centuries.                      

A.  Merchants - During this period certain groups and castes dominated in particular regions. 

Banjaras - Banjaras were a trading group who carried on trade between villages and between villages and towns in a region and even at the inter-regional level. They were an important link for rural-urban trade. The Banjaras confined their trading activities to some limited commodities like grain, pulses, sugar, salt, etc. They procured a number of animals (mainly oxen to carry the load) and moved from place to place buying and selling goods. The Bdnras operated in many parts of North India, but there were other similar traders known by different names. The Nahmardis was one such group of traders operating in Sindh. Other such nomadic traders were the Bhotiyas operating between the Himalayas and plains. 

Baniyas - The Baniyas, unlike Banjaras, were involved in all sorts of trading activities. At the village level, they traded in grain and other agricultural produce. They also acted as moneylenders, giving loans to peasants and other people including state officials and nobles. In towns, they dealt in grain, textiles, gold, silver, jewels, spices and sundry other commodities. Some even owned ships for trading. 

            In the region of Punjab, the Khatris were a major trading community. The multiples were an important trading community of Delhi, parts of Punjab and Sindh in the 13-17th centuries. The Bohras were important merchants of 'Gujarat. They were mostly Muslims. They were an urban community mainly based in Gujarat and other western parts. Apart from Gujarat, they had some settlements in Ujjain and Burhanpur. 

South India - 

In the southern part of India, various merchant groups played prominent roles. The Chetti was one such group. The merchants along the Coromandal coast up to Orissa were known as Kling. The Komatis were the merchants belonging to a trading caste. They mainly worked as brokers for, textiles and we're suppliers of various products from the hinterland to the port towns on the southern coast. They were mainly Telugu speaking. Like the Chetties another merchant group called Chulias were also divided into four sub-groups. Of these, the Marakkayar were the wealthiest merchants dealing in the coastal and South-East Asian trade. Among the Muslims, the Golkunda Muslims were involved in overseas shipping. They were prominent in the south of Madras and were the main merchants in the Bay of Bengal region. 

Q.  Give a brief account of the agricultural production during Mughal India.   

A. Agricultural production under Mughals include Cash crops, Food crops and -- 

Fruits, Vegetables and Spices

Horticulture seems to have reached new heights during the Mughal period. The Mughal Emperors and the nobles planted lavish orchards. A number of fruits available today were introduced in India during the 16th and 17th centuries by Portuguese that includes Pineapple, Papaya and cashew-nuts. Cherries were brought from Kabul and grown in Kashmir through grafting. The practice of grafting was in order to improve the quality of a number of fruits. Quality of oranges other types of citrus fruits, apricots, mangoes and a host of other fruits was greatly improved through grafting. Coconut was grown not only along the coastal region but also inland.

           Seeds of different varieties of melons and grapes were brought from Kabul and successfully grown in the gardens of Emperors and nobles. Ordinary melons were grown everywhere on riverbeds by the peasants. 

       The Southern coast of India witnessed large scale spice export to various regions in Asia and Europe. Pepper, clove, cardamom were plentiful. Ginger and Turmeric were grown extensively. The Dutch and English purchased large quantities for export. Saffron grown in Kashmir was celebrated for its colour and flavour. Pan (betel leaf) was produced in many areas. 

Q.  Write an essay on non-agricultural production during the Mughal period. 

A.  Mineral Production

          The salt was the essential commodity in which India seems to have been self- sufficient. The sources of salt were the Sambhar lake in Rajputana, the Punjab rock-salt mines and sea-water. Sea salt was made mainly in Sind, the Rann of Cutch, other coasts of Gujarat, Malabar, Mysore and Bengal, etc. Since salt was not

available in all parts of the country, it was one of the major articles of trade at the regional and inter-regional levels.

         Saltpetre was one of the most important mineral products. It was in great demand by the Europeans. It was primarily used as an ingredient for gun powder. Initially, saltpetre was-extracted at Ahmedabad. Baroda, etc. But since the supply could not meet the demand, it started to be made even in the Delhi-Agra region. However, by the second half of the seventeenth century, Patna in Bihar became an important centre for procuring saltpetre. 

         Rajasthan was the main centre for copper production where copper mines existed (at Khetri). The bulk of the copper was used for minting copper coins. Small and big household objects were also manufactured.

         Iron was the most commonly found metal. Iron mines were widely distributed in the north, east, west, central and southern parts of the country The iron found in the south was converted into steel. Iron was used for making ploughs, axes, nails, screws, swords, daggers. The steel made in the south, especially in Golconda, was used for the manufacture of Damascus swords, admired all over the world. 

Diamond Mining

Diamond mining was carried out in some parts of India, but the diamond mines of Golconda were most famous. Other places included Biragarh in Berar, Panna in Madhya Pradesh, Khokhra or Chhotanagpur in Bihar. 

Wood-Based Crafts 

         The means of surface transport made of wood included palanquins and bullock-drawn carts. Both were made in a wide variety of styles and the ones used by rich were carved and decorated. A large number of boats and sea-going ships were always needed since India has a long coastline and north India is crisscrossed by a large number of navigable rivers. The ports on the Arabian sea as well as the Bay of Bengal were important ship-building centres. When the Europeans intensified their activities, they got their ships repaired at these places. They found Indian ships better suited for eastern waters and, hence, they purchased ships built in India. Thus the shipbuilding industry received a considerable boost because of the rising European demand throughout the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries.

              Other uses of wood were to make doors, windows, and a large number of household furniture such as boxes, bedsteads, etc. The rich had their furniture made from high-quality wood. 

Miscellaneous Crafts

Stone-cutting was an important craft as stones were widely used in the construction of houses, palaces, forts, temples, etc. Indian stone-masons were known for their skill. Other items of non-agricultural production were leather goods such as shoes, saddles, book-covers, etc., manufactured all over the country.

Paper

Paper was manufactured during the period under review in a number of centres, such as Ahmedabad, Daulatabad, Lahore, Sialkot, Biharsharif near Patna, etc. Ahmedabad paper was of several varieties and was exported to Arabia, Turkey and

Persia. The paper from Kashmir was also famous. 

Pottery

Every large village in India had its potter and pottery for everyday use was made all over the country. Apart from the above coarse pottery, fine crockery was also made. 

         Glass manufacturing was also undertaken in several parts of the country. Other miscellaneous items produced by Indian craftsmen included soap, objects of ivory and shell, articles of the horn, etc. Several crafts were forest-based. Among them, lac was used for the manufacture of bangles, varnishing doors and windows and toys and for preparing a red dye. It was extracted from forests in Bengal, Bihar, Assam, Orissa, Malwa, Gujarat, Malabar, etc. Bengal lac was considered to be the best. In Surat, bangles and toys were made of lac. It was also used for sealings. Various contemporary authorities refer to pearl fisheries being practised in the sea waters along the southern coast.

Q. Write a note on the network of overseas trade routes during the 16th-17th century. 

A.  The sea routes on both the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal were well frequented. Before the discovery of the sea route via the Cape of Good Hope, the most frequented sea routes in the north were:-

a)  from Cambay, Surat, Thatta to the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea;

b)  from other parts like Dabhor, Cochin and Calicut to Aden and Mocha. At Mocha - certain commodities were carried via Red sea and then through overland route to Alexandria via Cairo. Alexandria was another point of distribution of commodities into European countries. With the rounding of the Cape of Good

Hope, the European countries got new openings. Now they no more depended on Alexandria or Aleppo. Instead, they dealt directly with India and South Asian countries. 

                As for Eastern seas, since long the Indian merchants were having seaborne trade with China and the Indonesia Archipelago. From Hugli, Masulipatnam and Pulicat, commodities were sent directly to Achin, Batavia and Malacca. Through the Malacca straits, merchants used to go as far as Macao and Canton in China. 

EHI - 4

12th Part

Q.  What are food crops, cash crops and oil-yielding crops ? Discuss their relative importance.                                                   

A. Food crops - 

Rice and wheat were the two major food crops throughout the country. The regions with high rainfall (40 to 50") accounted for the bulk of rice production. The whole of Northeast, Eastern India (Bihar, Bengal, Orissa with parts of Eastern U.P.), southern coast of Gujarat and South India, were rice producing areas. In South India, there were two main seasons of rice cultivation kuddapah-kar and samba-peshanam named after the variety of rice cultivated during the summer and winter seasons. Like rice, wheat also had specific regions. Punjab, Sind, Western Uttar Pradesh and other regions with little rainfall produced wheat. Apart from these two major crops, barley was grown extensively in the Central plains. Millet is reported with some exceptions mainly from wheat producing zones. Jowar and bajra were the two main millets. Pulses are reported from different regions. Important ones are gram, arhar, moong, moth, urd and khisari (the latter was grown extensively in Bihar and the regions of present Madhya Pradesh).

         The majority of seasonal crops in North India were grown in two major crop seasons kharif (autumn) and rabi (spring). In some areas, the peasants tended to grow even three crops by producing some short-term crops in between.

Cash Crops

Crops grown mainly for the market are commonly termed as cash cops. Unlike seasonal food crops, these occupied the fields almost the whole year. The major cash crops in the 16th-17th centuries were sugarcane, cotton, indigo and opium. Their demand increased due to enhanced manufacturing and commercial activities. During this period, a large foreign market also opened for these commodities. Sugarcane was the most widely grown cash crop of the period. Another cash crop grown throughout the country was cotton. Indigo was another cash crop widely cultivated under the Mughals. The plant yielded a blue dye (neel) which was much in demand in India and European markets. Cultivation of opium is reported from a number of places in India. The Mughal provinces of Bihar and Malwa seem to have produced good opium. Cultivation of tobacco, coffee also spread in different parts of India. 

Oil seeds - The plants whose seeds were used for extracting oil come under the category of food as well as cash crops. The main oil yielding crops listed are rapeseed, castor, linseed. Rapeseed is reported in all provinces from Allahabad to Multan as also in Bengal.

Q.  The French East India Company                                    

A.  The French were late comers to the Eastern trade. The French East India Company was founded in 1664. The first French factory was established at Surat in 1668. This was the place of prime importance to the English. But the Mughal-English armed clash at Hugli caused a sericus setback to the English possessions and

trade in India. It also provided an opportunity for the French to strike roots in India.

             In 1669, the French established their second factory at Masulipatam. In 1673, they got Pondicherry, and in 1674 the Nawab of Bengal granted them a site near Calcutta wherein 1692 they built the town of Chandranagore. There was a fierce rivalry between the English and the French. Clashes in India began with the war between the two countries (France and Britain) in Europe in 1742 leading to the three 'Carnatac wars'. The French were defeated and lost almost all their possession in India.

Q.  Mention briefly the variety of implements and techniques of agricultural production in the Mughal period.                             

A.    Tillage was performed by harnessing a pair of oxen to the plough. The latter was made of wood with an iron ploughshare. There were Regional variations in the size and weight of ploughs, from a light plough that could be carried by the tiller upon his

shoulders, to the heavy one meant for harder soil. Again, for soft soil, the iron ploughshare has been dispensed with as the price of iron was high. Unlike Europe, Indian plough just turned the soil and that deep digging was not done because deep digging would result in the loss of moisture in the soil. Moreover, it was only the upper layer which was more fertile. A separate device was used for breaking the lumps of earth. This was done with the help of wooden boards called patella in parts of north India. Like plough, this flat board was also harnessed to a pair of oxen. Generally, a man would stand on the board to provide weight. The patella was dragged on the field by oxen. The sowing of seeds was generally done through scattering by hand. 

           Efforts were made to increase the fertility of the soil through artificial means. In South India, flocks of goat and sheep were widely used. Generally, flocks of these cattle were made to spend a few nights in the agricultural field for their droppings were considered good manure. The same practice was commonly used in Northern India also. Fish manure also seems to have been used in coastal areas.

        Rotation of crops was used for the optimum utilisation of land throughout the year. It was also considered good to maintain the productivity of the soil. Peasants through the experience of generations had acquired some knowledge of using the rotation of crops for the good of the soil. They would decide which crop to be replaced by another in a particular field for a better yield.

        A semi circular sickle was used for cutting the crop. The harvested crop was spread on the ground for threshing. Our sources refer to two methods: In the first method the crop was beaten with sticks; in the second method the animals were made to move on the spread out the crop. The weight and movement of the animals treaded the grain. The threshed out matter was put in open baskets and the contents were thrown outside the basket at a controlled speed. The chaff got scattered by the wind and the grain fell on the ground.

Q.  Discuss the pattern of local, regional and intra-regional trade during the medieval period.                                                   

Q.  Give a brief account of local and regional trade during the Mughal period.  

A. Local and regional trade -

         During this period, land revenue was realized in cash. This meant that the surplus agricultural produce was to be sold. The bulk of this was sold in the village itself. Most of this purchase was made by banjaras who were the traditional grain merchants. They, in turn, carried it to other towns and markets. every locality had

markets in the nearby towns where people from the surrounding areas would come to buy and sell things. Apart from these regular markets, there were hat and penth where people from the villages could exchange or buy things of their daily need. These hats or penths were periodic markets which were held on fixed days in a week. There were hats for specific goods also. In these local markets, food-grains, salt, simple tools and equipment of wood and iron for agriculture and domestic needs and coarse cotton textiles were available. These markets existed in all small townships and bigger villages. A network of small and big markets viz., hats, penths, mandis, and the merchants in their individual capacities took care of the commercial activities in various localities.

          These local trading centres were linked to bigger commercial centres in a region. Each of them had bigger commercial centres serving as nodal centres for all the commodities produced in various pans of the suba. Generally, these big towns also served as administrative headquarters of the suba. Patna, Ahmedabad, Surat, Dacca, Agra, Delhi, Lahore, Multan, Ajmer, Thatta, Burhampur, Masuliputnam, Bijapur, Hyderabad, Calicut etc. are a few examples of such trading centers these places are big commercial centres not only for the products of their respective regions but also for serving as emporia for inter-regional and foreign trade. Each had a number of markets. Ahmedabad alone had as many as 19 maadis in and around it. The products from nearby towns, suburbs and villages found their way to these centres. Patna, for example, had silk from Baikanthpur, cotton clothes from Nandanpur and Salimpur; fruits vegetables, opium and sugar from different other parts of the suba. 

             There were some towns that specialised in the trading of specific commodities: for example, Burhampur (cotton mandi), Ahmedabad (cotton textiles), Cambay (gems market), Surat-Sarkhej (indigo), Agra for Bayana indigo, etc. All these commercial centres had mints which struck silver, copper & at some places gold coins. These cities had a large number of merchants, brokers and Sarraf's. There where a large number of sarais (rest-houses) in these cities for the convenience of merchants and travellers.

Inter-regional Trade -

During the period of trade between different regions of India was quite developed. Goods produced at one place were carried to long distance thousands of miles for purposes of trade. The main commodities of large scale interregional trade were food grains and various sorts of textiles. Luxury items, metals & weapons were also traded. 

            In the east, Bengal had well-developed trade relations with all parts of India. There were many trading centres in Bengal like Hugli, Dacca, Murshidabad, Malda etc. Here products from Bihar, Orissa & some parts of Bengal were brought. Bengal supplied food grains to all parts of the country. Rice and sugar from Patna, Textiles of all sorts from Bihar, Benaras and Jaunpur, Saffron from Kashmir etc were available in the markets of Bengal. The large scale silk manufacture in Gujarat and Bihar was completely dependent on the raw silk from Bengal. The silk cloth produced from this raw silk found its way to all parts of India and abroad.

           In the west, Ahmedabad and Surat, the biggest commercial centres of the period, attracted textiles from the south, north and the eastern parts of India. Gujarat received the supply of pepper and spices from Malabar coast. 

           In the north, Agra received large quantities of silk from Bengal. Carpets and textiles from the Awadh region were taken to Gujarat, Bengal, Patna, Lahore and Multan. The saffron, wood products, fruits and woollen shawls, etc. from Kashmir.

             Most of the trade from the south was along the coast. Large quantities of Bengal indigo were sold in Masulipatan. Pepper and spices of the Malabar coast were taken to Bijapur, Coromandel, the Konkan coast, and the Gujarat tobacco from Masulipatam were taken to Bengal. Diamonds from Golkunda mines were taken to all parts of India. Minerals and metals which were produced at select places only were taken to all parts of Mughal India. Salt produced mainly in Rajasthan and Punjab was taken to all parts of north and south India. The main sources of iron were Gwalior in central India, Rajasthan, Punjab and Sindh. Good quality steel was made in Cutch in Gujarat, some places in Deccan and South India. The bulk of copper was produced in Rajasthan. Bihar, Sind, Rajasthan and parts of north India were important places to procure saltpetre.

Q.  Discuss the relations of European trading companies with Indian rulers.    

A.     The Mughals and the Indian rulers were interested in the development of India's overseas trade as it would have increased their revenue resources. So long as the Mughals were strong, the European merchants followed the policy of seeking concessions through petitions and presents but with the weakening of the Mughal power, the European Companies started imposing their will on the Indian rulers to get monopolies and concessions. 

Dutch - 

The Dutch got a favourable response from the rulers of Golkunda who granted them concessions to trade on payment of 4 per cent customs duty on their exports and Imports and also given exemption from duty on cloth. In 1612, the duty of 4 per cent was commuted into a fixed payment of 3000 pagodas annually. In spite of getting concessions from the Indian rulers, the local officials constantly used their power to evade the orders and imposed duties on Company's trade. It frequently resulted in clashes with the local officials resulting in closing down of factories. For trade along the west coast, the Dutch succeeded in getting farman from the Mughal Emperor Jahangir. They were exempted from tolls from Burhanpur to Cambay & Ahmedabad. Shah Jahan also issued two tarmans granting them permission to trade in Bengal (1635) and at Surat.

The English

It was during Jahangir's reign that the first English envoy reached the Mughal court and received a royal farman in 1607 and the English established their first factory at Sura. The Mughals wanted to counter the Portuguese naval might by joining hands with the English. Besides, they also wanted benefits for Indian merchants who could aspire to gain better profits in case of competition between the foreign merchants. The English tried to take advantage of the naval weakness of Indian rulers. They harassed the Indian traders and ships. These pressures resulted in the issue of another farman by which the English merchants got the right to open factories in all parts of the Mughal Empire. The rulers of Golkunda also maintained friendly relations with the English Company. In 1632, the ruler of Golkunda issued a farman by which they were allowed to trade freely in the ports belonging to Golkunda on payment of 500 pagodas irrespective of the volume of trade. This certainly gave a great boost to English trade in the Coromandal region.

The French -  

The French had to face the wrath of the Marathas (Shivaji) as early as 1677. French commander readily acknowledged the authority of Shivaji and agreed to pay him an amount in lieu of a licence to trade in his dominions. Shivaji accepted the French request on the condition that they would not participate in military operations against him. In 1689, the French got permission to fortify Pondicherry (from Bambhaji). The French also succeeded in getting a farman from Aurangzeb in 1667 to open their factory at Surat. In 1688 the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb ceded Chandranagore village to the French. The French maintained close ties with Dost-Ali the Nawab of Carnatic on whose recommendation the Mughal Emperor Muhammad Shah issued a farman granting permission to the French to mint and issue gold and silver currency bearing the stamp of the Mughal Emperor and the name of the place of minting.

Q.  Write a note on textile manufacture during the Mughal period.   

A.  Cotton textile

     Cotton textiles were manufactured all over the country with the exception of the sub-Himalayan region. Many centres specialised in producing the only yam which was taken to weaving centres and even exported. The spinning of yam thus became a specialised occupation. In and around all the major centres of textile production. many peasants and women took it up as an additional source of earning and supplied yam to weavers.

           There was a considerable variation in quality among cotton textiles produced in different regions as every region had their own specialities. Some of the varieties were like Bafta which is described in the Ain-i Akbari as a type of high quality, Tafta was a silk cloth some times inter-woven with cotton yarn. Zartari was a cloth which was inter-woven with gold or silver thread. Muslin was a very fine quality of thin cloth. Chintz (Chheent) was cotton cloth with floral or other patterns printed or painted. Khasa was a kind of muslin. It was expensive cloth of fine quality. Some clothes were named after the place of production, such as Dariabadi and Khairabadi etc. Some regions specialised in a particular variety, Bafta from Gujarat and muslin from Sonargaon and thereafter from Dacca in Bengal are examples of this specialization.

Silk textiles

Silk was another important item for the manufacture of textiles. Patna &Ahmedabad was known for silk fabrics. Banaras was equally famous. In the seventeenth century, Bengal produced the largest amount of raw silk which was exported abroad as well as to other parts of India. In Bengal, silk fabrics were manufactured at Qasimbazar and Murshidabad.

Wool

Wool was another important material used for manufacturing textiles. The most famous was the Kashmiri shawl, exported all over the world. The fine wool used in these shawls was imported from Tibet. Blankets were made from wool almost all over North India. Other textile items included cotton durries, carpets (of silk and wool), tents and quilts, etc. Carpet weaving was yet another branch of textile production. Bihar (Daudnagar, Obra, etc.), Delhi, Agra, Lahore and Mirzapur were famous centres in the north. Warangal in the south was also famous for carpet weaving. The carpet weaving was also done in Masulipatam along the Caromandal coast.

Q.  Trace the emergence of European trading companies in India.    

A.  The Dutch East India Company

The Dutch East India Company was formed in 1602 through a charter. The Dutch were primarily interested in the spice trade. Therefore, they paid more attention to the Far East. India was just a trading depot for them. They established their first factory at Petapuli in North Coromandal in 1606, followed by another at Masulipatam in the same year. Gradually, they realized that Indian textiles could be the best commodity for exchange with the spice islands (Indonesian Archipelago). This necessitated the expansion of their network in India and established their factories at different places in India like Pulicat (1610), Cambay (1620), Surat and Agra (1621), Hariharpur (1633), Patna (1638). Dacca (1650), Udaiganj (1651), Chinsura (1653), Qasimbazar, Baranagore, Balasore and Negapatam (1659-60). 

The English East India Company

In 1600, English East India Company obtained a Royal Charter with her trade monopoly in the East by Queen Elizabeth. In 1608 the English merchants decided to open their 'first' factory at Surat. By 1619, they succeeded in establishing factories at Agra, Ahmedabad and Broach. Conditions were more favourable to establish a factory in the South as there was no strong Indian state in that part. English opened their first factory at Masulipatam in 1611. In 1626, another factory was opened at Aramgaon. In 1639, they got Madras on lease from the local Raja. Soon, they fortified it which came to be known as Fort St. George. They acquired the island of Bombay in 1668 and fortified it soon after. The English penetration in the East was comparatively late. They established their first factory in Orissa at Hariharpur and Balasore in 1633. In 1651, they got permission to trade at Hugli. Soon they also opened their factories at Patna (Bihar) and Qasimbazar (Bengal). In 1698, the English acquired the zamindari of Sutanati, Kalikata and Govindpur, where they built the Fort William. Soon it grew into a big city and came to be known as Calcutta.

French East India.Company

The French were latecomers to the Eastern trade. The French East India Company was founded in 1664. The first French factory was established at Surat in 1668. The Mughal-English armed clash at Hugli caused a serious setback to the English possessions and trade in India. It also provided an opportunity for the French to strike roots in India. In 1669, the French established their second factory at Masulipatam. In 1673, they got Pondicherry, and in 1674 the Nawab of Bengal granted them a site near Calcutta wherein 1692 they built the town of Chandranagore. 

Q.  What role did the money lenders & Sarraf play in the Mughal economy?   

A.  In large parts of Northern India, the traditional merchants played a dual role as traders as well as moneylenders. In villages, traditional Baniya lend money to individual peasants to pay land revenue. In towns and bigger places also merchants acted as moneylenders.

        Another category among the personnel of trade which played a significant role was that of the Sarraf's. They performed three distinct functions: (i) as money-changers; (ii) as bankers, and (iii) as traders of gold, silver and jewellery. As money-changers, they were considered as experts in judging the metallic purity of

coins as well as their weight. The sarrafs, apart from issuing bills of exchange, also received money for the safe deposit. This was returned to the depositor on demand. The depositor was paid some Interest on his deposits. The rate of interest payable to depositors kept changing. The Sarraf's, in turn, would give money on loan to the needy on a higher rate of interest. 

       Money lending for personal needs and commercial purposes was an established practise. Much of the trading was conducted through the money taken on interest. Generally, the sarrafs and merchants both indulged in money lending. As bankers, they would receive deposits and give loans on interest. They used to issue

bills of exchange or hundis and honour the ones issued by others. The money was taken on loan by peasants for paying revenue and repaid at harvest. Nobles and zamindars would take it for their day-to-day expenses and repay it at the time of revenue collection. Money lending for business purposes was also very common.

The rate of interest for smaller loans is difficult to ascertain. It depended mainly on the individual's need, his credit in the market and his bargaining power

      The Sarraf was also a part of the Mughal mint establishment. Every mint had a sarraf who would fix the purity of bullion. He also verified the purity of coins after minting.

EHI - 4

11th Part 

Q.  Mention the mainland routes operating in India during the seventeenth century. What were the major means of transport used on these routes?     

A.  The credit of an elaborate network of trade routes linking all the commercial centers of the Empire by the beginning of the 17th century goes to the Mughal emperors. The roads were looked after by the state or chieftains through whose territory they passed. In certain regions, these roads were obstructed by a large number of rivers which were crossed by fords or sometimes bridges had to be built.

            The fords and bridges were also built and maintained by the state or nobles. However, during rains, the roads were in pathetic condition. To mark the alignment of roads as also to indicate the distance traveled, the state provided towers known as kosminars. However, only those routes which were traversed more frequently had kosminars. All the prominent routes had sarais at short intervals. These sarais were used by the merchants and travelers as halting places. Apart from residential quarters, big sarais also provided to the itinerant traveler space for the storage of goods. Some important trade routes were - 

Agra-Delhi - Kabul Route

Agra-Faridabad-Delhi-Sonepat-Panipat-Kamal-Ambala-Ludhiana-Fatehpur-Lahore

Rohtasfort-Rawalpindi-Shamsabad-Peshawar-Fatehabad-Kabul.

Agra-Burhanpur-Surat Route

Agra-Dholpur-Gwalior-Narwar-Sironj-Handiya-Burhanpur-Talner-Nandurbar- Kirka-Surat.

Surat-Ahmedabad-Agra

Surat-Broach-Baroda-Ahmedabad-Palampur-Jalore-Merta-Ludana-Hinduan

Fatehpur Sikri-Agra.

Agra-Patna-Bengal Route

Agra-Firozabad-Etawa-Sarai 

Shahzada-Allahabad-Banaras-Sahasram-Daud Nagar

Patna-Munger-Bhagalpur-Rajmahal-Dampur-Dacca

Means of transport -

Oxen'played a major role. They were used as pack animals for carrying the load on their backs. We get references to grain merchants traveling with 10000-20000 pack animals in one caravan called tanda. Apart from the banjaras, other merchants also used them for transporting goods. Oxen-drawn carts were also used to transport goods. An ox could carry four maunds and a cart 40 maunds. The oxen which drew carts could travel 20 or 30 days without break, covering on an average 20-25 miles per day. Camels were commonly used. in the western part of the country for carrying goods. They carried goods by land to Persia and Central Asia. On high mountain regions, mules and hill ponies were used to carry heavy loads. Here human labor was also employed.

Q.  State briefly the nature of the relationship of the European companies with their parent countries.                                           

A.  The Dutch

The Dutch East India Company was established through a charter granted by the Dutch Government (States-General). The Company was governed through 17 Directors are commonly known as 'Gentlemen XVII'.Though States-General was the final controlling power the Gentlemen XVII enjoyed real powers and worked as a state within the state. Batavian Governor-General-in-Council had sovereign authority related to Dutch East Indian trade. The Council at Batavia was an efficient administrative body. Each factor in the East was asked to send regular reports. Periodic inspection by senior officers was also done. It was difficult for the Gentlemen XVII to interfere and check the Council's activities on account of the long distances and absence of speedy means of communications. 

Gentlemen empowered

Batavian Governor-General in Council to enter into treaties with the rulers in the region to the east of Cape of Good Hope, to build fortresses and garrisons and appoint governors, etc. But all the treaties were concluded in the name of the Dutch state. 

The English 

In the early 17th century, the English East India Company was the single largest Company in England. It strictly adhered to monopoly with regard to Eastern trades-a-vis other English merchants. There existed a close relationship between the Company and the Crown. Queen Elizabeth herself was one of the shareholders of the Company. However, the Company had to face a a tough time under Charles I. A charter was granted to the Company in 1661 by Charles 11. By this charter, the Company was empowered to, appoint governors and subordinate officers for administration. Their judicial powers to punish were enhanced. The Company succeeded in ensuring more and more military and administrative powers for the Company in lieu of huge loans granted by the Company to the Crown and the Parliament.

The French

The French East India Company was a state-controlled organization and thus differed from the Chartered Companies of England and the Netherland. The French East India Company was highly dependent on the French government for its grants, subsidies, loans, etc. After 1723, it was almost wholly controlled by the French government with Directors as its representative. Its shareholders were mostly nobles and rentiers and not merchants. They were more interested in short term dividends. For all practical purposes, the Directors had no power. Even the shareholders seldom met, and when they did they had no say in the presence of royal officials or the king.

The 'Assemblee Generale' also could hardly think of rejecting any proposal of the Syndics of Directors which had the ministerial approval.

Q.  Analyse the organization of craft production under the Mughals.     

A. The organization of production varied in different crafts and industries in accordance with the needs and requirements of that craft.

Village Artisans: - The artisans in rural areas produced articles of daily use, formed a regular part of the village establishment called jajmani system. The most crucial services were those of the blacksmiths, carpenters, potters, and shoemakers. They were paid in kind for providing the basic tools, agricultural implements, and their maintenance needs. The system was much more organized in Deccan and Maharashtra where village artisans and servants were called balutedars. With the increase in demand, the rural artisan catered to urban markets also. Production for the market was mainly done at the independent artisan-level production. Almost every craft had specialized artisans manufacturing articles for sale. The high level of specialization is most evident in textile manufacture. Almost every operation was performed by a different group of workmen like carding, the spinning of yarn, winding silk thread weaving of cloth, bleaching, dyeing, printing, and painting of cloth, etc. Peasants in villages played a significant role by taking up various manufacturing activities. In almost all the agro-based crafts like indigo, sugar, and others like the spinning of silk and cotton yam, manufacture of salt and saltpeter, they were at the core of manufacturing activity.

Dadni -  

          The artisans had little capital to work with. Therefore, the individual output was small and merchants had to make great efforts to procure it. The quality also differed. These problems gave rise to a revised form of production called dadni or a sort of putting-out system. In dadni the money was advanced to artisans by the merchants and the artisans promised to deliver the goods at a given time. Here the merchant was in a position to dictate his specifications. The practice in the textiles sector became so widespread that it was difficult to obtain cloth without making the advance payment to the artisans. In the seventeenth century, the weaving industry in Deccan was found to be dominated by merchants. The system of dadni empowered the buyer to dictate the quality and quantity of the goods produced. The artisan got the much-needed money to buy raw material with the guarantee of the sale of the goods made, but he lost his control over the sale.

Karkhanas - 

      A unique feature of production in the period was the karkhanas. These karkhanas were part of the royal establishment and also of the nobles. These produced things for the consumption of the royal household and the court. Many high nobles also had their own karkhanas. Generally expensive and luxury items were produced here. Skilled artisans were employed to work under one roof to manufacture things needed. They were supervised by state officials. The need for such karkhanas arose because the artisans on their own were not in a position to invest huge amounts required for royal needs. Because of valuable raw material, the state also did not want to give these to artisans to work at their own places.

Manufactories - 

In 1620-21, the English factory at Patna established the first unit for winding silk yarn and employed around 100 workmen. The Dutch at Qasimbazar employed 700-800 weavers in their silk factory. Another specialized areas where a large number of workmen were assembled to work in one place was shipbuilding and building construction. Almost all the shipbuilding centers in Deccan and South India had a large number of artisans working on each ship under one single supervision. Building activity also likes ship-building required a large number of artisans working under one single supervision. There were two other production sectors where a large number of workmen (though not very skilled artisans) were employed. One, the diamond mines of Golconda and Deccan had around 30,000 to 60,000 people working at the periodical season of mining. The second case of an assemblage of large workers was in the production of saltpeter. In this case, also a large number of people worked under one master in small groups.

Q.  Discuss the commercial practices in trade & commerce during the seventeenth century, with special reference to bills of exchange (hundis).              

Q.  Discuss the various commercial practices employed in trade and commerce during the medieval period.                                   

A.   Various commercial practices employed in trade and commerce of the period were - 

Bills of Exchange (Hundi)

During this period hundis or bills of exchange became an important form of money transaction. Hundi was a paper document promising payment of money after a period of time at a certain place. The practice started because of the problems involved in carrying large amounts of cash for commercial transactions. The merchants interested in carrying cash to a particular place would deposit it with a sarraf who would issue a hundi to the merchant. The merchant was to present it to the agent of the sarraf at his destination and encash it. This started as a safe and convenient method of transferring money. In due course, hundi itself became an instrument of transaction. It could be presented against a transaction. It could alsobe freely bought or sold in the market after endorsement.  (The use of hundi was so widespread that even the imperial treasury and state were using it. In 1599, the state treasury sent Rs. 3,00,000 to the army in Deccan through a hundi. Tributes paid by Golkunda (Rs. 10,00,000) and Ghakkar Chief (Rs. 50,000)

to the Mughal Emperor were also transferred through hundi.) 

      Many big merchants also issued hundi. Such merchants and sarrafs had their agents at important commercial centres. At times, members of one family (father, son, brother, nephew) worked as agents for each other. Big firms had their agents even outside the country. A commission was charged by the sarrafs on each hundi. The rate of exchange depended on the rate of interest prevalent and the period for which it was drawn.

Banking - The sarrafs, apart from issuing bills of exchange, also received money for the safe deposit. This was returned to the depositor on demand. The depositor was paid some interest on his deposits. The rate of interest payable to depositors kept changing. The bankers, in turn, would give money on loan to the needy on a higher rate of interest. (Sarrafs who accepted deposits were honest in dealings. Even strangers could deposit thousands for safekeeping and demand it any time.)

Usury and Rate of Interest

Money lending for personal needs and commercial purposes was an established practice. Much of the trading was conducted through the money taken on interest. Generally, the sarrafs and merchants both indulged in money lending. The loans were taken for various purposes. The money was taken on loan by peasants for paying revenue and repaid at harvest. Nobles and zamindars would take it for their day-to-day expenses and repay it at the time of revenue collection. Money lending for business purposes was also very common. (The rate of interest depended mainly on the individual's need, his credit in the market and his bargaining power. There was a difference in interest rates in various regions which suggests that the integration of the financial market had not taken place. )

Bottomry

A number of uncertainties and risks were involved in long-distance sea voyages. These uncertainties gave rise to a new practice called 'avog' or bottomry. It was a type of speculative investment which was quite popular during the period of ourstudy. In Bottomry money was lent at high rates ranging between 14 to 60 percent.

The money was lent to be invested in cargo for a particular destination. The rate of interest depended on the risks involved. The lenders were to bear all the risks of the voyage.)

Partnership

In partnership, the merchants pooled their resources to carry on trade. Some persons formed joint ventures for overseas trade.

Insurance (Inland and Marine) Another important commercial practice prevalent in India on a limited scale was that of insurance or bima. In many cases, the sarrafs used to take responsibility for the safe delivery of goods. At sea, both the ship and the goods aboard were insured. By the 18th century, the practice was well-established and widely practiced. The rates are also available for different goods for different destinations. The rates for sea voyages were higher than goods going through the land.

EHI - 4

10th Part

Q.  Critically analyse the nature of land rights in Deccan and South India during the 16-17th centuries.                                      

A.  The agrarian surplus produced by the peasantry & successfully extracted by the Telegu nayaks was the basis of the power of the Vijaynagar state. Many towns or fortified settlements were established in this period by the nayaks. They served as both political and economic centres. Palaiyan was reclaimed land held by the warrior chieftains where peasants, artisans, and merchants were integrated into the political and economic network established by the nay& chief. They extracted kudanai (local dues) and sittayam from the peasants and artisans respectively. The land tenure of the nayaks is referred to as kaniparru. It probably refers to rights in Lands, i.e., to buy and sell without the absolute right of ownership. It also refers to a variety of taxes. An inscription dated A.D. 1522 testifies to the transfer of temple land and the rights associated with land to the nayak. The rights were as follows:

1)  to collect dues from the peasants;

2)  to cultivate the land and settle people; and

3)  to receive prasadam (sacred food) from the temple.

    However, the transfer of land to the nayak did not imply the transfer of the right of ownership The nayak could use the land and collect taxes, but the temples reserved the right of ownership to themselves. 

           Kaniparru was a conditional and contractual tenure or a lease between the warrior chieftains and temples. The temples retained the right of ownership and imposed obligations on the nayaks to pay the temples a certain amount in cash or kind. The process of transfer of land did not lead to eviction of peasants. They retained their share (karai) of land. In case of transfer of temple lands to the peasants, the peasant leaders (mudaiis) took over the cultivation of the land. They paid vadavathi (tribute) to the temple. This kind of peasant land-tenure was called kudiningadevadanam. The peasants in such villages had a permanent share in the land

and could not be displaced. The rate of taxation was high. Besides, the peasant was pressed to maintain irrigation facilities. 

           The land was also leased out to individuals other than the nayaks and to institutions. The lease included houses, wet and dry land. In certain instances, the descendants of the leaseholder also enjoyed the right of sale, mortagage, etc. Taxes imposed by the central and local governments on the land leased out by the temples were paid to the temple authorities by the leaseholders. Land leased out by temples were not totally exempt from taxes. The taxes received from the leaseholders were remitted by the temple authorities to the state while retaining certain other taxes like kadamai for themselves. The leaseholders were given the right of cultivation and reclamation and colonisation of land. Generally, leaseholders did not cultivate themselves; they got it done by others. They paid taxes to the temple treasury in cash or kind. Cultivators also got a share of the produce. The leaseholders were almost the owners of the leased land. The mirasi right was an important component of the land system in South India. The miradars held tax-free land called maniyam. They were entitled to a share of the produce (kuppattam) from these lands. In certain cases, several mirasdars held village land jointly. 

         The cultivators were called payakari who were divided into two groups-ulkudis and parakudis. The former stayed in the village. Their rights were not transferable and could not be infringed upon. The parakudis were tenants-at-will whose right of cultivation was contractual. Taxes paid by the mirasdar or the government were referred to as pannu, irai, vari, etc. There were two categories of the miradars--resident and non-resident. Slave labour was also employed by the miradars to cultivate the land. The mirasdars acted as intermediaries between the government and villagers. Thus, mirasi right though hereditary was not uniform. Its nature varied from place to place. It could be transferred through sale, mortgage or gift.

Q.  Discuss the mughal currency system and working of mints under them.   

A.  Under the Mughals, the currency system was very well organised. A high level of purity of metals was also achieved. 

The Coinage

              The Mughal currency system may be termed as trimetallic. Coins were of three metals, viz, copper, silver and gold. However, the silver coin was the base of the currency. Under Akbar, rupaya as the basic currency with a weight of 178 grains (troy). Under Aurangzeb, the weight of the rupaya was increased to 180 grains (troy). The silver rupaya was the main coin used for business and revenue transactions. The Mughals issued a gold coin called ashrafi or muhr. It weighed 169 grains (troy). This coin was not commonly used in commercial transactions. It was mainly used for

hoarding purposes and also forgiving in the gift. 

             The most common coin used for small transactions was the copper dam which weighed around 323 grains. The weight of the copper dam was reduced by one third during Aurangzeb's reign because of the shortage of copper. Further, for very petty transactions Kauris (sea-shells) were used in coastal areas. These were brought mainly from the Maldive islands. Around 2500 kauris equalled a rupaya.

        Apart from the silver rupaya other types of coins were also used. The most important of these were mahmudis, a long-standing silver coin of Gujarat. Even after the establishment of the Mughal rule in Gujarat, it continued to be minted and used in Gujarat for a commercial transaction. In the Vijayanagar Empire, a gold coin called hun or pagoda was used. After the disintegration of Vijaynagar, its circulation continued in the kingdoms of Bijapur and Golkunda. In many Deccan kingdoms, an alloy of copper and silver called tanka was in use. After the expansion of the Mughals in Deccan a number of mints were established in that region to produce Mughal silver coins. 

Exchange Value of Coins

The exchange value of gold, silver and copper coins kept fluctuating depending on the supply of these metals in the market. The silver value of gold kept fluctuating throughout the Mughal period, ranging from 10 to 14 rupaya for one gold coin. For transaction purposes during Akbar's period, 40 copper dams were considered equal to one rupaya. Silver coins of small fractions called ma were also used. It was one-sixteenth of a rupee.

Working of Mints - 

The Mughals had a free coinage system. A very strict standardization was followed to maintain the purity of coins. Attempts were made to have these mints in big towns and ports so that the imported bullion-could be taken to mints easily. Every coin carried the name of the issuing mint and the year of minting and ruler's name. Any person desirous of getting money minted was to carry bullion or old currency for re-minting to a mint. The quality and purity of the metal were scrutinized. The currency was minted and delivered to the concerned person. A specific sum was charged as minting charges. This amounted to around 5.6% of the bullion minted. In the process of minting a large number of personnel and craftsmen were involved. A mint was headed by an officer called darogha. The duties of this officer were to supervise the overall working of the mint. He was assisted by a number of officials, skilled artisans and workmen. The Sarraf was employed by the mint as an assessor. He was to judge the purity, weight and age of the coin and fix deductions on their value. The mushrif was to maintain accounts. The tahwildar kept accounts of daily profit and kept coins and bullion in safe custody.

Q.  What were the main taxes other than land revenue extracted by the Mughal state?                                                       

A.     The main sources were tolls and levies on craft production, market levies, customs and rahdari (road tax) both on inland and overseas trade, and also mint charges. Apart from these, the state treasury received huge amounts by way of war booty, tributes and gifts from various quarters. Almost everything sold on the market was taxable. The main articles taxed were clothes, leather, food grains, cattle, etc. Every time the merchandise was sold, a certain tax was to be paid.

         Apart from merchants, all the artisans also paid taxes on their products. Katraparcha was a tax levied on all sorts of cotton, silk and wool cloth. Indigo, saltpetre and salt were other important commodities subjected to Lo taxation. In some cases as in Panjab, the tax on salt during Akbar's time was more than double the prime cost. 

       When the goods were taken from one place to another, a tax was levied. All merchandise brought through the ports was taxable. Aurangzeb levied sepearate transit taxes for separate groups. The rate fixed was 2.5% from Muslims 5% from Hindus and 3%% from foreigners. These rates were applicable throughout the Empire. Apart from the Mughal territory, the autonomous chieftains also levied customs and duties on goods passing through their territories. 

      Apart from customs, another tax called rahdari or transit tax was collected. This was a road-toll collected on goods passing through various territories. Though the amount at each place was small, the cumulative charge became heavy. Even the

zamindars used to collect tools on goods passing through their territories.

      The tax generated 'at mink was another source of income for the Empire. The state mint-fee was called mahsul-i darul zarb. The charges were around 5% of the value of the money minted. Besides, two other charges were also collected. These were rusum- i ahikaran (perquisites of officials) and ujrat-i karigaran (wages of artisans). 

Q.  What were the main methods of revenue collection and the magnitude of land revenue demand under the Mughals               

A.  Magnitude Of Land Revenue Demand - 

   In general, the rate of revenue demand was from 1/2 to 1/3 of the produce. Since the revenue was imposed per unit of area uniformly irrespective of the nature of the holding, it was regressive in nature--those who possessed large holdings felt the burden less than those who possessed smallholdings. Abul Fazl comments that under Akbar, Sher Shah's I/3 of revenue demand formed the lowest rate of assessment. Under the Mughals it ranged between 1/3 to 1/2 of the produce, and sometimes even 3/4 in some areas. Thus, the revenue demand varied from suba to suba. In Kashmir, the demand, in theory, was one-third while in practice it was two-thirds of the total produce. Akbar ordered that only one-half should be demanded.

        In the province of Sind, the land revenue was taken at the rate of one-third. Yusuf Mirak, explains that the Tarkhans who held Sind in jagir did not take more than half of the produce from the peasantry and also in some cases they took one-third or a fourth part of the total produce. 

         In Ajmer suba, different rates of revenue demand. Infertile regions of eastern Rajasthan, it ranged from one-third to one-half of the produce. 

     In Jaisalmer, one-fifth of the produce was collected from the rabi & one-fourth from the kharif crop.

      In Central India, rates varied from one-half, one-third to two-fifths. In Deccan, one-half was appropriated from the ordinary lands while one-third was taken from those irrigated by wells and one-fourth was taken from high-grade crops. Rates under Aurangzeb were higher than that of Akbar. It was due to the fact that there was a general rise in agricultural prices and, thus, there was no real change in the pitch of demand.

Collection of land revenue(methods) - 

       In the Mughal period, the peasant under zabti system had to pay revenue in cash. However, under crop-sharing and kankut, commutation into cash was permitted at market prices. Cash nexus was firmly established in almost every part of the Empire. Under ghalla bakhshi, the state's share was seized directly from the field. In other systems, the state collected its share at the time of harvest. 

      In the kharif season, the harvesting of different crops was done at different times and the revenue was accordingly to be collected in three stages depending on the type of crops. Thus, under kharif the revenue could only be collected in instalments. The rabi harvest was all gathered within a very short period. The authorities tried to collect revenue before the harvest was cut and removed from the fields. 

     The revenue was deposited in the treasury through the 'amil' or revenue collector. Akbar encouraged the peasants to pay directly, Todar Mal recommended that the peasants of trusted villages, within the time limit, could deposit their revenue in the treasury themselves and could obtain a receipt. The village accountant, patwari, made an endorsement in his register to establish the amount paid.

Q.  Balutedars                                              

A.  The rural servants in Maharashtrian villages are referred to as twelve balutes. It includes carpenter, blacksmith, potter, leather-worker, rope-maker, barber, washerman, astrologer, Hindu priest and mahar. There were two categories of the balutedars:- 

I)   Watan holding balutas and stranger(upari) balutas. The first category possessed a hereditary monopoly over their services. They were employed by the village as a whole and served the individual villagers. The balutedars were paid by the peasants in three ways:

1)in kind or cash called baluta;

2) in the form of perquisites, rights and privileges in cash or kind, and

3) in the form of revenue-free inam lands.

        The balutas remained the servants of the whole village and not of any family. The balutas generally belonged to different occupational castes. The priest and the accountant were Brahmins. The priests did not hold any watan. Their function was confirmed to certain castes or families because of the peculiar nature of Hindu rites and ceremonies.