Second Part
Q Write a note on the nature of regional polity specially in the context of Awadh. 12
A The independent authority that emerged in the provinces in the 18th century worked with the collaborative support of different groups like the Zamindars, the merchants, etc. Merchants and money lenders who became politically important in the 18th century had an important role in the emergence of the regional political system. In the 18th century with the weakening of central authority and the collapse of the Mughal treasury, this commercial class provided the economic basis for the emergence of regional political system. They became the guarantor of money for the rulers & the nobles. The extent of penetration into the working of the administration by merchant class was fairly pronounced. The government borrowed substantial sums for its working from the commercial houses. The Agarwal bankers had complete command over the revenue matters in Benares.
In the case of Bengal, the house of Jagat Seths played an important role in the administration of the Bengal province. Thus the merchants and the money lenders had a share in political power in the regional polity in the eighteenth century. Parallel to the merchant class , Zamindars as a group also had a very significant role to play within the province. In the wake of the weakening imperial authority, the Zamindars consolidated their power at the local level. They began to tax markets and trade in their areas which was beyond their domain during the sunny days of the Mughal rule. The collection of revenues and the maintenance of law and order in the countryside became the concern of the Zamindars. The stability in the regional polity became dependant on the active support of the Zamindars. The Zamindars were usually supportive of the merchants and in many cases, Zamindars were also money lenders and had an investment in commerce. So their common interest tied them together. Thus the support of these two groups became essential for the ruler to maintain his authority. Another significant characteristic that is observed in the polity of Bengal and Awadh is the appointment of a large number of Hindus in the revenue administration. The manning of revenue administration by Hindu officials have been encouraged because there was less chance of resistance from the Hindus to the Nawab's authority.
Q Why did the French fail in the Carnatic wars? What was its effect on Indian polity? 12
A There are several reasons for French failure in the Carnatic wars such as -
Firstly, there were the financial difficulties faced by the French Company which came in their way of making preparations to launch a fresh military offensive against the British. There were no funds to pay the troops. Already handicapped by this, the French general added to the problems of the troops by indulging in rude and haughty behavior towards them. He refused to listen to their advise and thus alienated them. Another major problem was the French had no permanent naval presence in India. On the other hand, the British had a strong naval fleet in India. What was more problematic was that, on the occasions when the French navy from Mauritius did come to the assistance of their Indian counterparts, it created fresh problems for the French Company in India. This is so because there was a lack of coordination and one up-man among the French Generals resulting in disagreements thus benefiting the British.
One major factor that turned the tide in -Britain's favour was its recent access to the rich resources of Bengal. From this secure base they could send a constant supply of men and money to Madras and thus launch fresh military strikes against the French. Thus, Britain because of its strong navy in India; its increasing military strength and good leadership and the support they received from Government in England, and the larger resources from Bengal helped Britain to defeat French forces in Carnatic wars.
A major fallout of the events after the defeat of French forces in the Carnatic wars was, it exposed the weakness of the Indian regional powers. It showcased their inability to make naval intervention and also exposed the ineffectiveness of the large armies of regional power in comparison to small but disciplined European armies. In the aftermath of the third Carnatic War, the English reigned supreme over India. All their European Rivals had been eliminated and the task of subjugating Indian regional rulers started. In the east they already had a secure base at Bengal and now focused their energies towards South. Firstly, in South India Mysore was a major force to reckon with and so were the Marathas for the British. Battles against these two States became a major preoccupation with the East India company in the third and last quarters of the 18th century. By the second decade of the 19th century, the British had secured their position in South India very firmly.
Q How did the new state develop in Punjab? What was the nature of its polity? 12
A First part answer ahead Second part -
The teachings of the Sikh Gurus laid the foundation for the Sikh polity. The movement, that had developed amongst the Sikhs to fight against the socio-economic and religious injustices in the medieval period, ultimately got transformed into a political movement during the course of the 18th century. So the nature of the Sikh polity was based on the moral ethos and the democratic traditions laid down by the Sikh Gurus.
The reflection of this democratic tradition is found in the Sikh polity of the Misl period. It demonstrates its various features like the Gurmata, the Dal Khalsa, ruling in the name of the Khalsa, etc. The emergence of the Sikh monarchy in the 19th century in place of various independent chiefs brought further change in the nature of Sikh polity. During the 19th century, the autonomy of the individual Sardar of different principalities came to an end and a monarchy was established in the state of Punjab under Ranjit Singh. Ranjit Singh had full faith in the Sikh scriptures and the Sikh religion. But his personal faith never came his way of running the administration which was secular in its approach.
Q Third Carnatic War 6
A The Third Carnatic war ( 1757- 1763)was a local version of the Seven Years war in Europe. The Third Carnatic War put an end to the French ambitions to create a colonial empire in India. The earlier two Carnatic wars were limited to Deccan but the third war spread in Bengal also. The British Forces were able to capture the French Settlements at Chandranagar in 1757. The decisive battle of the third Carnatic War was fought at Wandiwash on 22 January 1760. British army totally routed the French army under Lally. In the next three months, all the minor French possessions in the Carnatic had been effectively reduced by British forces. Thereafter, the French were left with no possessions in the Carnatic except Jinje and Pondicherry. Finally, in May 1760, the English laid siege to Pondicherry. After more than six months of encirclement, the French capital of Pondicherry unconditionally surrendered on 16 January 1761. Shortly thereafter Jinje and Mahe, the two French settlements on the Malabar coast also surrendered to the English leaving the French without even a toehold in India. British were now the dominant power in India.
Q Comment on the formation of regional polities in the 18th century with special reference to Mysore & Hyderabad. 12
A Along with the decline of the Mughal empire, the second major theme of the 18th Century was the emergence of regional polities. Broadly there were three kinds of states which came into prominence:
# the states which broke away from the Mughal empire,
# the new states set up by the rebels against the Mughal, and
# the independent states.
Nature of polity at Hyderabad
Hyderabad - Under Nizam-ul-mulk, the army was an important component of the polity that emerged in Hyderabad. The military commanders and their troops were tied to the political system through their individual employer, mainly the nobles. Inland revenue system, intermediaries played a significant role that have important consequences in the shaping of Hyderabad polity under the Nizams. The nobility in the Nizam's period did not have uniform criteria for career advancement. Personal relations with Nizam or military skills became very important. So to become powerful in Hyderabad, the mansab rank (as under Mughal system) did not prevent the rise of the noble. Many Zamindars or Jagirdars who could rally the smaller intermediaries behind them, could with a little military skill and diplomacy became powerful. Aiding in this process of grabbing wealth and power was a network of intermediate clients called the vakils. These vakils acted as agents between Nizam and nobles, nobles and nobles and Nizam and outside powers. Bankers, moneylenders and military commanders (usually mercenaries) played an important role in the political system of Hyderabad. They played a key role since they provided essential financial and military service. Some of the main community or caste groups amongst the financial groups were the Agarwal and Marwaris while Afghans and Arabs were prominent military groups. By threatening to withdraw support and services these individuals and groups could at their level play an important role in the balance of the power. The local chiefs under the Nizam continued to control their inherited land on the payment of tribute to the Nizam. Though they played the role of patrons like Nizams and his nobles, they were never fully integrated within the Hyderabad political system.
Mysore - Mysore in the 18th century emerged as a polity which was consolidated under military might of Haidar and Tipu. This system, however, was under constant pressure from their own inability to evolve durable solutions to the forces which were held in check due to military strength. Haidar Ali didn’t allow the local chiefs any claim to independence and if they resisted they were driven off their lands. By limiting the scope of these chiefs activities, Haidar further eroded their local base. Tipu Sultan, his son, went further in the subjugation of the poligars. After expelling them he rented out their lands to either private individuals or government officials.
One of the important features of the Mysore administration under Haidar and Tipu was in building the base of their military-political authority by augmenting their financial resources for running the state. The land was kept under a system of survey and control. The state took measures to encourage tillers by providing adequate relief and protection. A strong system of state control was evolved where an amildar controlled the revenue administration and asufdar looked after the legalities of rent disputes. Intermediaries were removed and a direct link between the state and the peasantry was established. It helped to maximize revenue for the state. Merchants had been playing an important role in the Mysore economy. Tipu appointed asufs to train officials to run trade centers established by him for keeping trade in control.
Q Discuss the differences in the state formation between Hyderabad and Mysore states during the 18th century. 12 A Hyderabad, Bengal, and Awadh were the three cases where provincial governors under the Mughals set up independent states. The breakaway from Delhi didn’t take place suddenly rather it occurred in stages - the revolt of individuals was followed by that of the social groups, communities and finally the regions. The Zamindari revolts in the provinces against imperial demands triggered off the breakaway. Governors who were appointed by Mughals did not get support from the center and tried to secure the support of the local elites. Gradually the relationship of the central authority with the provincial administration was virtually reduced to getting tribute from the provincial governor. However, links with the centre were maintained and the Mughal tradition continued.
Nizam Asif Jab was firstly appointed as a subadar (in charge of the province) by the Mughal emperor in 1713. But only after a military victory over his rival Mughal appointee in 1724 that he could take effective charge of the Deccan. After this period he stayed on in Deccan and went to the Mughal court only after leaving his appointee in charge. Taking advantage of the weakness at the center, he removed the Mughal officials in Hyderabad and installed his own men. Subsequently to stamp his authority he also assumed the right of making treaties, wars and granting mansabas and titles to his favorites. Now gradually the Mughal authority was reduced to a symbolic reading of Khutba etc. By the time of Nizam Ali Khan (1762-1803) Carnatic, Marathas and Mysore had all settled their territorial claims and a kind of autonomous stable political pattern emerged in Hyderabad.
Mysore - The mid-18th century witnessed the emergence of Mysore as a significant power in South India. Haidar Ali laid the foundations of Mysore's power, which were consolidated by his able son, Tipu Sultan. Though Haidar Ali was only a junior officer, of common parentage, in the Mysore army, he gradually rose to be a brilliant commander. His most remarkable achievement was his realization that only a modern army could be the basis of a powerful state. Consequently, he inducted French experts to set up an arsenal and train the troops along western lines.
Soon after Haider Ali was able to overthrow the real power behind the Mysore throne, the minister Nunjaraj in 1761. The boundaries of the Mysore state extended to include the rich coastal areas of Canara and Malabar. An expansionist at heart, Haidar naturally clashed with other powers in the region, the Marathas, Hyderabad and the new entrants in the game, the British. In 1769 he inflicted a heavy defeat on British forces very close to Madras. With his death in 1782, his son Tipu became Sultan and extended his father's policies further.
Q Battle of Buxar 6
A The abuse of dastak (duty-free trade permit) by the company servants for their private trade was the immediate cause of the war of 1764. Mir Kasim was backed by the provincial nobility of Bihar, Orissa and the Nawab of Awadh and the Mughal emperor Shah Alam. The combined forces under Mir Kasim were defeated by the British and thus the independent rule of the Nawabs in Bengal came to an end. The deposition and execution of Mir Kasim was followed by the restoration of Mir Jafar, this time on much harsher terms. For all practical purposes, power was transferred to the British and which was formalized by the treaty of Allahabad, 12 August 1765. By the treaty, the Mughal emperor formally appointed the English East India Company his Diwan for the provinces of Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa. The company was entrusted with the financial administration of the three province's and in return, the emperor was guaranteed an annual tribute of Rs. 2,00,000. The Nawabs of Bengal retained the office of Nazim with formal responsibility for defense, law and order and the
Administration of justice.
Q Awadh under the British 6
A The company through the resident stationed at the Awadh capital encroached upon the powers of the rulers so much so that by the beginning of the 19th Century, many of the higher officials, courtiers and large landholders of the province repose their faith in the company and consider it as a real source of power. Even members of the Nawabi family relied on companies' intervention for securing the position of the Nawabi. The company on the other hand, used the resources of Awadh both the manpower and money in redrawing the political map of India. The Army recruited from Awadh and Bengal and supported by the money extracted for the people of the province helped the company in winning repeated victories over the Maratha and the Sikhs. It led the British to emerge as the Paramount power in India. It also helped the Company to keep Awadh in check by providing extraterritorial protection to the dissidents from the jurisdiction of the Awadh rulers thereby creating a constituency loyal to the Company.
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