EHI - 3

1st Part

Block - 1

Q.  Describe different kinds of Land grants or Agrarian settlements in the early medieval period ( 8th - 12th).

A. There were different kinds of land grants -

    Brahmadeya - A brahmadeya represents a grant of land either in individual plots or whole villages were given away to Brahmans making them landowners or land controllers. It was meant either to bring virgin land under cultivation or to integrate existing agricultural settlements into the new economic order dominated

by a Brahman proprietor. The practice of land grants as brahmadeya was initiated by the ruling dynasties and then followed by chiefs, feudatories, etc. Brahmadeya facilitated agrarian expansion because they were :

#  exempted from various taxes or dues either entirely or at least in the initial stages of settlement (e.g. for 12 years);

#  given different kinds of ever-growing privileges. The ruling families derived an economic advantage in the form of the extension of the resource base, moreover by creating brahmadeyas they also, gained ideological support for their political power.

              Brahmadeyas were invariably located near major irrigation works such as tanks or lakes. Sometimes, two or more settlements were clubbed together to form a brahmadeya or an agrahara.

Secular Grants: From the seventh century onwards, officers of the state were also being remunerated through land grants. It created another class of landlords who were not Brahmanas. Literary works dealing with central India, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Bihar and Bengal between the tenth and twelfth centuries make frequent references

to various kinds of grants to ministers, kinsmen and those who rendered military Services to the state. The rajas, rajaputras, mahasamantas, etc. mentioned in Pala land charters were mostly vassals connected with land. The incidence of land grants to state officials varies from one region to another.

Devadanas: It represents large scale gifts of land to the religious establishments, both Brahmanical and non-Brahmanical. Through the process of acculturation, these centers helped in integrating various peasant and tribal settlements. They also integrated various socio-economic groups through service tenures or remuneration through temple lands. Temple lands were leased out to tenants, who paid a higher share of crop produce to the temple. Such lands were also managed either by the sabha of the brahmadeya or mahajanas of the agrahara settlements. In non - Brahmana settlements temples became the central institution. Here temple lands came to be administered by the temple executive committees composed of land-owning non-Brahmans the Velalas of Tamil Nadu. 

The supervision of temple lands was in the hands of Brahmana and non-Brahmana landed elite. The control of irrigation sources was also a major function of the local bodies dominated by landed elite groups. Thus the Brabmana, the temple and higher strata of non-Brahmanas as landlords, employers and holders of superior rights in land became the central feature of the early medieval agrarian organization. 

Q.  Critically Examine the nature of the early medieval economy(8th- 13th).

A.  1) Emergence of hierarchical landed intermediaries. Vassals and officers of state and other secular assignee had military obligations and feudal titles. Different intermediaries were employed by these donees to get their land cultivated which led to the growth of hierarchy among landed elites. It was a hierarchy of landed aristocrats, tenants, sharecroppers and cultivators. This hierarchy was also reflected in the power/administrative structure, where a sort -of lord-vassal relationship emerged. In other words, Indian feudalism consisted of the grossly unequal distribution of land and its produce.

2)  Another important feature was the prevalence of forced labor. The right of extracting forced labor (vishti) is believed to have been exercised by the Brahmana and other grantees of land. Forced labor was originally a prerogative of the King or the state. It was transferred to the grantees, petty officials, village authorities and others. In the Chola inscriptions alone, there are more than one hundred references to forced labor. Even the peasants and artisans come within the jurisdiction of vishti. As a result, a kind of serfdom emerged, in which agricultural laborers were reduced to the position of semi-serfs. 

3) Due to the growing claims of greater rights over land by rulers & intermediaries, peasants also suffered a curtailment of their land rights. Many were reduced to the position of tenants facing an ever-growing threat of eviction. A number of peasants have only shared, croppers. The strain on the peasantry was also caused by the burden of taxation, coercion, and the increase in their indebtedness.

4) The surplus was extracted through various methods. With the rise of new property relations, new mechanisms of economic subordination also evolved. The increasing burden is evident in the mentioning of more than fifty levies in the inscription of Rajaraja Chola. Thus newer methods were devised to extract more from the peasantry.

5) It was relatively a closed village economy. The transfer of human resources along with the land to the beneficiaries shows that in such villages the peasants, craftsmen, and artisans were attached to the villages and hence were mutually dependent. Their attachment to the land and to service grants ensured control over

them by the beneficiaries. Thus, Indian feudalism like the emergence of hierarchical landed intermediaries, the prevalence of forced labor, curtailment of land rights of peasants, economic subordination by surplus extraction and existence of a relatively closed village economy.

Q.  Critically examine the regional pattern of the emergence of urban centers in the 9 the-13th centuries. What role did proliferation of land grants and bhakti play in the growth of urbanization in the early medieval period? 

A.  In a vast country like India, there are a lot of regional variations in the pattern of emergence and growth of urban centers. 

1) Rural Centres Transformed into Urban Centres - The brahmadeyas and devadanas which are important sources of agrarian Urban Settlements during the early medieval period provided the nuclei of urban growth. The Brahmana and temple settlements were clustered together in certain key areas of agricultural production. Such centers, initially rural, became points of convergence of people involved in trade, agriculture, and pilgrimage. Examples of such centers of urban growth are the Chola city of Kumbakonam developed out of agrarian clusters and became a multi-temple urban center between the ninth and twelfth centuries. Kanchipuram is a second major example of such an urban complex.

2) Market Centres & Trade-Network - Early medieval centuries also witnessed the emergence of urban centers of relatively modest dimensions, as market centers, trade centers (fairs, etc.) which were primarily points of the exchange network. The range of interaction of such centers varied from small agrarian hinterlands to regional commercial hinterlands. Some of them emerged due to the exchange needs of the Nadu. A fairly large number of such centers were founded by ruling families or were established by royal sanction and were named after the rulers, a feature common to all regions in South India. Such centers had the suffix Pura or pattana. 

               Nagarams located on important trade routes and at the points of intersection developed into a more important trade and commercial center of the region. They were ultimately brought into a network of intra-regional and inter-regional trade as well as overseas trade through the itinerant merchant organizations and the royal ports. Such development occurred uniformly throughout peninsular India between the tenth and twelfth centuries.  The

nagarams linked the ports with political and administrative centers and craft centers in the interior. In Karnataka, nagarams emerged more as points of exchange in the trading network than as regular markets for agrarian regions.

              Market centers also developed in Rajasthan & western parts of MP. Rajasthan provided the main commercial links between Gujarat, Central India, and the Ganga valley. Such links were maintained through towns like Pali, which connected the seacoast towns like Dwaraka and Broach with Central and North India. Gujarat continued to be the major trading region of Western India where early historic ports like Broach continued to flourish as important trade centers in early medieval times. Major craft centers that developed in response to inter-regional trade were weaving centers in Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu.

Sacred/Pilgrimage Centres - The idea of a pilgrimage to religious centers developed in the early medieval period due to the spread of the cult of Bhakti. Its expansion in different regions through a process of acculturation and interaction between the Brahmanical or Sanskritic forms of worship and folk or popular cults cut across narrow sectarian interests. Pilgrimage centers developed urban features due to a mobile pilgrim population, trade and royal patronage. 

              Pushkara near Ajmer in Rajasthan was a sacred tirtha of regional importance with a dominant Vaishnava association. Kasi (Banaras) acquired a pan-Indian character due to its greater antiquity and importance as a Brahmanical sacred center. In South India, Srirangam (Vaishnava), Chidambaram (Shaiva) and Madurai (Shaiva), etc. developed as regional pilgrimage centers, while Kanchipuram became a part of an all India pilgrimage network. While Melkote was a regional sacred center in Karnataka. Similarly, Tirupati was initially an important sacred- center for the Tamil Vaishnavas but acquired a pan-Indian character later in the Vijayanagara period.

                The early medieval urbanization is sometimes characterized as "temple urbanization" particularly in the context of south India. Sacred centers also provided important links in the commerce of a region as temples and the mathas attached to them were the biggest consumers of luxury articles and valuable goods.

Royal Centres or Capitals -

Royal centers of the seats of power of the ruling families were a major category of urban centers in early medieval India. Some of them had been the seats of royal power even in the early historic period, for example, in the Janapadas of North India or in the traditional polities of South India. Royal families also developed their own ports, which were the main ports of entry into their respective territories and which also linked them with international commerce. Some representative examples are:

#  Vatapi and Vengi of the Chalukyas in the northern Karnataka and Andhra.

#  Kanchipuram of the Pallavas with their royal.the port at Mamallapuram (Mahabalipuram).

#  Madurai of the Pandyas with Korkai as their port.

#  Tanjavur of the Colas with Nagappattinam as their port.

#  Kalyana of the Western Chalukyas, Dvarasamudra of the Hoysalas 

#  Warangal of the Kakatiyas with Motupalli at their port.

Warangal was a rare example of a fortified royal city in South India.

Examples of royal centers in North India are:

#  the Gurjara Partihara capital at Kanyakubja (Kanauj).

#  Khajuraho of the Chandellas.

#  Dhara of the Paramaras 

Q Discuss the standard of living, clothing pattern and social life of the urban classes in medieval India. 

or

Q.  Discuss in detail the two phases of the trade and commerce during the 8th to 12th centuries(500). OR

Discuss in brief the trading activities in India between 9thto 13thcenturies(250). OR

Discuss the chief features of the trading economy during c. A.D. 700 to A.D. 900 (500).

A. The two phases of the trade and commerce during the early medieval times can be divided as - 

1) c.700-900 A.D.. and

2) c 900-1300 A.D.

Briefly, the two phases are marked by :

a) relative decline of trade, metallic currency, urban centers and a closed village economy in the first phase, and

b) reversal of most of the aforesaid tendencies in the second phase. During the second phase, trade picked up momentum not only within the country b$t in relation to other countries as well. Metal coins were no longer as scarce as they were in the first phase.

THE FIRST PHASE (c.A.D. 700-900)

 The period from A.D. 750-1000 witnessed the wide-spread practice of granting land not only to priests and temples but also to warrior chiefs and state officials like Samantas, mahasamanta, maha-mandaleshvara, etc. leading to a hierarchy of landlords. However, they were different from the actual tillers of the soil and lived on the surplus extracted from the peasants who were hardly left with anything to trade. It resulted in the growth of rural economy where local needs were being satisfied locally. The relative dearth of metal coins further decimated trading during this time. 

Relative Decline of Trade

Internally, the fragmentation of political authority and the dispersal of power to local chiefs, religious grantees, etc. had an adverse effect on trade and commerce on the land grant economy. Many of the intermediary landlords, particularly of less productive areas, resorted to loot and plunder or excessive taxes on goods passing through their territories. Which further dampened the enthusiasm of traders and merchants. No less discouraging were the frequent wars among the potential ruling chiefs. Some other factors which led to the decline of trade with other countries were - 

1) The disintegration of the Roman empire which was one of the major trading partner and importer of goods had a cascading impact on trade.

2) Trade has also affected adversely in the middle of the sixth century when the people of Byzantine (Eastern Roman Empire) learned the art of making silk. India thus. lost an important market which had fetched her considerable amount of gold in the early centuries of the Christian era.

3)  The decline of foreign trade was also caused by the expansion of Arabs on the North-west frontiers of India in the seventh and eighth centuries. Their presence in the region made overland routes unsafe for Indian merchants.

4) The fights amongst the Tibetans and Chinese during these centuries also affected the flow of goods along the routes in central Asia.

5) The Western coast of India suffered dislocation and disruption of sea trade as the Arabs raided Broach and Thana in the seventh century and destroyed Valabhi an important port on the Saurashtra coast, in the eighth century.

Urban Settlements: Decay

The first phase was also marked by by-the decay and desertion of many towns. It is an important symptom of commercial decline because the towns are primarily the settlements of people engaged in crafts and commerce. As trade declined and the demand for craft-goods slumped, the traders and craftsmen living in towns had to disperse to rural areas for alternative means of livelihood. Thus towns decayed & townsfolk became a part of the village economy. The decay of important towns such as Vaishali, Pataliputra, Varanasi, etc. is evident from the archaeological excavations which reveal the poverty of structure and antiquities. The pan-Indian scene is marked by the desertion of urban centers or their state of decays in the period between the third and eighth centuries. Even those settlements which continued up to the eighth century were deserted thereafter.

                 The commercial activity during the first phase of the early medieval period had declined but did not disappear completely. In fact, trade-in costly and luxury goods meant for the use of kings, feudal chiefs and heads of temples and monasteries continued to exist. The articles such as precious and semi-precious stones. ivory, horses, etc. formed an important part of the long-distance trade. In short, the nature of commercial activity during A.D. 750-1000 was such which catered more to the landed intermediaries and feudal lords rather than the masses.

THE SECOND PHASE (c.A.D.900 - 1300)

This phase is marked by the revival of trade and commerce. It was also the period of agrarian expansion, increased use of money and the reemergence of the market, the economy in which goods were produced for exchange rather than for local consumption. These centuries also witnessed a substantial growth of urban settlements in different parts of the sub-continent.

Crafts and Industry

The growth of agricultural production was supplemented by increased craft production. Increased craft production stimulated the process of both regional and inter-regional exchange. Textile Industry developed as a major economic activity producing coarse as well as fine cotton goods. The oil industry also acquired great importance during this period. An inscription from Karnataka refers to different types of oil pills operated both by men and bullocks.

        Similarly, references to sugarcane cultivation and cane crushers in this period also indicate large scale production of jaggery and other forms of sugar. Besides the agro-based industry, the craftsmanship in metal and leather goods too reached a high level of excellence. The literary sources refer to craftsmen connected with different types of metals such as copper, brass, iron, gold, silver, etc. Iron was also used to manufacture swords, spearheads and other arms and weapons of high quality. Magadha, Benaras, Kalinga, and Saurashtra were known for the manufacture of good quality swords. Gujarat was known for gold and silver embroidery.

Metal currency revival

The revival of trade received considerable help from the reemergence of metal money during this time period. the practice of minting gold coins was revived by Gangeyadera (A.D. 1019;1040), King of Tripuri (in Madhya Pradesh) after a gap of more than four centuries. Govindachandra, the Gahadavala King near Varanasi in Uttar Pradesh, the Chandella rulers Kirttivarmana and Madanavarman in Central India, King Harsha of Kashmir and some Chola Kings in Tamil Nadu also issued gold coins. Reference has already been made above to certain early medieval coin types in Western and Northwestern India. According to one estimate, about nine mints were founded in different parts of Karnataka during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. An important mint functioned at Shrimol (near Jodhpur) in Rajasthan.

Commodities of trade and Consumers

The chief customers of Indian goods were the rich inhabitants of China, Arabia, and Egypt. Many of the Indian goods were exported to Europe via the Mediterranean. Merchants carrying food grains, oil, butter, salt, coconuts, betel leaves, madder, indigo, candied sugar, jaggery, thread cotton fabrics, blankets, metals, spices, etc. from one place to another, and paying taxes and tolls on them. A new class of domestic consumers emerged as a result of large scale landgrants from the eighth century onwards. The priests who earlier subsisted on a meager fee offered at domestic and other rites were now entitled to hereditary enjoyment of vast landed estates, benefices, and rights. This new landowning class, along with the ruling chiefs and rising mercantile class, became an important buyer of luxuries and necessities because of their better purchasing power. Big temples with their vast resources and varied requirements also helped in generating commercial activity. This phenomenon was more marked in South India where many temple sites became important commercial centers. 

Trade Routes and Means of Communication

A vast network of roads connected to different ports, markets, and towns with one another and served as the channel of trade and commerce. Besides roads, the rivers in the plains of Northern India, and the sea route along the Eastern and Western coasts in South India also served as an important means of inter-regional

contacts. A significant development in the post-tenth centuries was the keen interest shown by rulers to keep the highways in their kingdoms safe. They took measures to punish thieves and robbers and provided military as well as monetary help to villagers to protect the traders and travelers passing through their region. They also built new roads to connect important ports and markets in their state and excavated tanks and wells for the benefit of travelers. Trade is an important source of revenue. political authorities had to be concerned about the safety and well being of traders and merchants.

Revival of Towns

The second phase of early medieval India (c.900-1300 A.D.) is marked by a very distinctive revival of urban centers. This revival became an almost all India phenomenon. 

Q.  Give a brief account of various groups of merchants operating during the medieval period. 

Q.  Various groups of traders.-------to do

Q.  What were merchant guilds? Discuss the role played by Aiyyavole guild in the expansion of trading activities in South India. 

Q.  What were guilds? Examine the organization and functions of Aiyyavole and Maninagram.

A.  The guilds were voluntary associations of merchants dealing in the same type of commodity such as grains, textiles, betel leaves, horses, perfumes, etc. They were formed by both local as well as itinerant merchants. The association of local merchants having permanent residence in town was more permanent in nature than

the association of itinerant merchants which was formed only for a specific journey and was terminated at the end of each venture. The guilds framed their own rules and regulations regarding the membership and the code of conduct. They fixed the prices of their goods and could even decide that a specific commodity was not to be sold on a particular day by its members. The two most important merchant guilds of South India were known as the Ayyavole and the Manigraman. Geographically, the area of their operation corresponded to the present-day state of Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and South Andhra Pradesh.

Ayyavole  - The Ayyavole was the guild of merchants in South India. This was a strong body of merchants and contributed to the expansion of trade not only in South India but overseas also. The merchant guild Ayyavole was also known as the guild of "the 500 Swami of Aihole" nanadeshi. In course of outward expansion, the members of the Ayyavole guild interacted with the local markets called nagaram, and promoted commercial activity by collecting agricultural goods from the hinterland and distributing the goods brought from elsewhere. The commercial influence of Ayyavole spread even beyond South India. It is indicated by the inscriptions found at Burma, Java, Sumatra and Sri Lanka. As the mercantile activities of Ayyavole increased, some of its members became quite. rich and powerful, and acquired the title of Samaya Chakravarti. i.e. the emperor of the trading organization.

Manigramam - Another important merchant guild of South India was the Manigramam. It first appeared along the Kerala coast in the ninth century A.D. However, as it gradually came into close contact, with the Ayyavole, it greatly improved upon its inter-regional activities and covered a large part of the peninsula. A ninth-century Tamil inscription found on the West coast of Malaya indicates that it was engaged in the long-distance sea trade from the very beginning. 

Functioning - The guild normally worked under the leadership of a chief who was elected by its members. He performed the functions of a magistrate in deciding the economic affairs of the guild. He could punish, condemn or even expel those members who violated the guild rules. One of his main duties was to deal directly with the King and settle the market tolls and taxes on behalf of his fellow merchants. The growth of corporate activity enabled guild chiefs to consolidate their power and position in society, and many of them acted as the representative of their members on the local administrative councils.

A member of the guild worked under a strict code of discipline and was also robbed of some initiative or action but still, he enjoyed numerous benefits. He received the full backing of the guild in all his economic activities and was, thus, saved from the harassment of local officials. Unlike a hawker or vendor, he had greater credibility in the market on account of his members' ip of the guild.

EHI -01

11th Part

Q- What are the main causes of the revolt of 1857 in India?

A.  - The causes for the revolt of 1987 were -

       1. Economic Causes - The most important cause of popular discontent was the British policy of economically exploiting India, hurting all sections of society. The peasants suffered due to high revenue demands and the strict revenue collection policy. Artisans and craftsmen were ruined by the large-scale influx of cheap British manufactured goods into India which, in turn, made their hand-made goods uneconomical to produce. People who made a living by following religious and cultural pursuits lost their source of livelihood due to the withdrawal of royal patronage caused by the displacement of the old ruling classes. A corrupt and unresponsive administration added to the miseries of the people.

       2. Political Causes - The British policy of territorial annexation led to the displacement of a large number of rulers and chiefs. The vigorous application of the policies of Subsidiary Alliance and Doctrine of Lapse angered the ruling sections of the society. Rulers of these territories became bitter enemies of the British and led to the revolt in their respective territories. They along with the other displaced ruling class were joined by their loyal soldiers and disgruntled Indian soldiers in the British army that spearheaded the revolt.

      3. Social- The social reforms introduced by the British were looked upon with suspicion by the conservative sections of the Indian society. Reforms such as the abolition of ‘Sati’, legalization of widow remarriage and extension of western education to women were looked upon as examples of interference in the social customs of the country. The social discrimination faced by the Indians due to the British attitude of racial superiority also led to much resentment.

      4. Religion - A major cause of the outbreak of the revolt was the fear among the people that the British government was determined to destroy their religion and convert Indians to Christianity. The increasing activities of the Christian missionaries and the actual conversions made by them were taken as proof of this fear. 

      5. Military-  Discontent, and resentment against British rule among Indian soldiers became the immediate cause of the revolt. At that time, the Enfield rifle was introduced in the army. Its cartridges were covered with a greased paper cover. This greased cover had to be bitten off before the cartridge could be loaded into the rifle. The news spread that the grease was made of cow and pig fat. As the Hindus consider the cow sacred and the Muslims do not eat pit’s meat, both these communities were enraged at such a blatant attempt to harm their religion.

Q.-  What are the factors that led to the partition of India.

  A.  The Partition of India was the 1947 partitioning of the British Indian Empire into India and Pakistan. The partition of India was the most significant event in the history of India. Its chief reason was the antic thinking of the Muslims and their communal outlook. The following factors contributed to it - 

       1.   Jinnah and the Muslim League: - He instigated religious passions and fears among the Muslim masses since 1930. He was more concerned with the fact that Congress didn't have Muslim representatives in the 1946 Provincial Elections. He claimed in his 1940 Muslim League Presidential Address that cultures, literature, and way of living and views on life were different from the two communities. The theory of one nation had been carried along too far and that it was nothing but a far fetched dream.

       2.  The British policy of Divide And Rule: -The English Govt played a significant role in the formation of the Muslim League. The English wanted to create dissensions among the people of India in order to consolidate their own position. The chief aim of the Muslim League was so spread the poison of communalism and the Muslim leaders had their own axe to grind through the medium of this organization. The Brits promoted communal electorates, special Care was taken to promote animosity between the two groups.        

                 3. Congress leadership:- Congress leadership underestimated Jinnah, Muslim League, its ambitions and outreach. The policy of appeasement of the Muslims, adopted by the congress also proved helpful in this field. Unfortunately, Congress couldn't understand the isolationist and aggressive policy of the Muslim and it continued to sustain the false, hope that there might be some miracle by which the communal problem could be averted forever.

      4. Communal Reaction:- As a result of Muslim Communalism spreading, Hindu Communalism also came into being. The staunch Hindus formed organizations like Hindu Maha Sabha that spearheaded Hindu causes. The system of Shuddi which was adopted by the Arya Samaj created doubt in the minds of the Muslims. Hindu Maha Sabha not only raised a slogan for the establishment of a Hindu nation but also blamed the Congress for being anti- Hindu organization. As a result of the Hindu communalism, the Muslim communalism grew all the more powerful and they raised the slogan of a separate nation.

                    The Partition of India was the 1947 partitioning of the British Indian Empire into India and Pakistan. According to estimates 14 million Hindus, Sikhs, and Muslims were displaced during the partition; it was the largest mass migration in human history.

Q.-  Discuss the process of formation of the Indian National Army (I.N.A). What was its role in the struggle for Indian Independence?

A.  The Indian National Army, I.N.A or Azad Hind Fauj was the army of Arzi Hukumat-e-Azad Hind (The Provisional Government of Free India). It was an armed force which was formed during World War II by Indian nationalists and Prisoners of war (PoWs). Its aim was to secure Indian independence from British colonial rule. The army was first formed in 1942 under Mohan Singh, by Indian PoWs of the British-Indian Army captured by Japan in the Malayan campaign and in Singapore. In the Countries of south-east Asia, there were large numbers of people of the Indian organ. When the British were defeated in Malaya and Burma, they left their Indian soldiers to their fate and fled. Taking advantage of this situation an old revolutionary named Rash Bihari Bose, who was living in Japan organized the Indians and formed the Indian Independence League. Japan handed over to the League the Indian Prisoners of war, who were organized into a liberation army. It became famous as the Azad Hind Fauj or Indian National Army (I.N. A.) 

                           The INA was initially formed under Mohan Singh, the captain in the 1/14th Punjab Regiment in the British Army. However, the first INA under Mohan Singh collapsed and finally it was revived under the leadership of Subhash Chandra Bose. INA emerged along with Mahatma Gandhi`s peaceful resistance movement within India. In contrast to Mahatma Gandhi, Bose advocated a more aggressive confrontation with the British authorities. The concept of an armed force fighting to overthrow the British Raj in colonial India with Japanese assistance originated within the Indian independence movement. During the Second World War, the plan to fight the British found revival and the number of leaders and movements was initiated. These included "liberation armies" formed in and with the help of Italy, Germany as well as in South-east Asia. Thus in South East Asia, the concept of the INA emerged. INA had many valued freedom fighters, who helped in the battles. They all had a brilliant background and fought for a similar cause, freedom of India. The INA freedom fighters were from every sphere ranging from barristers to plantation workers.. The revival of the Indian National Army was done by Subhas Chandra Bose. In 1943 he reached Singapore and assumed leadership of INA. Thus with his motivation and determination, INA doubled in strength and local civilians joined. Most of the people who joined had no prior military experience and thus to ensure a well-trained army.

Q.-   Write a note on the Non-Cooperation movement.

A-     The Non-cooperation Movement (Asahayog Andolan) was the next major event in the Indian struggle for freedom after the First War of Independence in 1857. This movement started in 1920 and lasted through 1922, supported all along by the Indian National Congress. Under Gandhi's leadership, the movement aimed at resisting British rule through non-violence. Activists refused to buy British goods, used only local handicrafts and picketed liquor shops. The goal was to uphold Indian honor and integrity in a peaceful manner. Thousands of common citizens rallied for the cause and it was the first large scale movement in the history of India’s independence.

               Many factors culminated over time leading to the Non-cooperation movement. Some of the significant causes were – growing British oppression of Indians as seen by the Rowlatt Act and Jalianwala Bagh massacre, economic inequality due to Indian wealth being exported to Britain, downturn of Indian artisans due to British factory-made goods replacing handmade goods, and strong resentment about Indian soldiers in the British army dying in World War I while fighting battles that otherwise had nothing to do with India. The non-cooperation movement seriously challenged the economic and political power of the British. The movement achieved overwhelming success across India. On February 5, 1922, violent clashes occurred between the local police and the protesters in Chauri Chaura. Three protesters were killed in police firing, and a police station was set on fire by the mob, killing 22 policemen.

                  Mahatma Gandhi felt that the movement had gone off-course and lost its non-violent nature. He did not want it to degenerate further and become violent. So he appealed to the Indian masses to cease the disobedience and went on a fast lasting 3 weeks. However, Gandhiji was arrested on March 10, 1922, and imprisoned for 6 years for publishing rebellious material. While most Congress leaders stood by Mahatma Gandhi, many nationalists felt that the Non-Cooperation Movement should not have been stopped due to isolated incidents of violence. Gandhi's commitment to non-violence continued and resulted in another major movement in the fight for Indian Independence – The Salt Satyagraha.

Q.-  a) Drain of wealth

A.      The Drain of Wealth theory was systemically initiated by Dadabhai Naoroji in 1867 and further analyzed and developed by eminent scholars. The "drain of wealth" depicts the constant flow of wealth from India to England during British Colonial rule for which India did not get an adequate economic, commercial or material return. The colonial government was utilizing Indian resources- revenues, agriculture, and industry not for developing India but for its utilization in Britain. If these resources had been utilized within India then it could have been transformed the Indian economy immensely by investing in manufacturing and rural areas and thus increasing the income of the people. Scholars opined that one-third of India’s national income was being drained away-in one form or the other. 

              According to Dadabhai Naoroji, the following forms of the drain can be identified:

• Home charges refer to the interest on public debt raised in England at comparatively higher rates; expenditure incurred in England by the Secretary of State on behalf of India; Annuities on account of railway and irrigation works; Indian office expenses including pensions to retired officials who had worked in India or England, pensions to army and naval etc.

• Remittances to England by Europeans to their families.

• Remittances for purchase of British Goods for the consumption of British    Employees as well as purchases by them of British Goods in India.

• Interest charges on public debt held in Britain.

       b) Rowlatt Act -

                              In the year 1919, the British Government passed a new rule called Rowlatt Act, under which the Government had the authority and power to arrest people and keep them in prisons without any trial if they are suspected with the charge of terrorism. The act was named after the recommendations made in the previous year to the Imperial Legislative Council by the Rowlatt Commission. The Rowlatt Commission was appointed to investigate the `seditious conspiracy` of the Indian people. The Law passed empowered the Viceroy Government with extraordinary power to stop all violations by silencing the press, confining political activists without trial and arresting any individual suspected of sedition and treachery and arresting individuals without any warrant.

              Nationalist leaders including Gandhi Ji were extremely critical about the enactment of the Rowlatt Act. To oppose the Act a nationwide protest was raised by calling a Hartal (cessation of work) where Indians suspended all the business and fasted to show their hatred for the British legislation.

Q.  What is de-industrialization? What was its impact on the Indian economy during the colonial period?  

 A.   De-industrialization is a long-term process of structural change in an economy to destruct industrial production. The process that leads to the long-time decline of industry, a fall in the contribution made by the manufacturing sector to national output, employment, income and overall prosperity of the country is called de-industrialization. 

       Impact on Indian economy during the colonial period -           

               India was a major player in the world export market for textiles and handicrafts. In the early 18th century, but by the middle of the 19th century it had lost all of its export market and much of its domestic market. Other local industries also suffered a decline, and India underwent secular de-industrialization as a consequence. While India produced about 25 percent of world industrial output in 1750, this figure fell to only 2 percent by 1900. There were a number of different ways to measure the extent to which our manufacturing sector experienced de-industrialization:-

        De-industrialization - The direct impact was, In the last three decades of the eighteenth century, East India Company after wiping out other European traders established their monopoly, thereafter English traders reduced the prices paid to Indian artisans. This excessive exploitation of Indian artisans weakened the very basis of handicraft industries by reducing the artisan to a low level of income. It also destroyed the possibility of accumulation of resources to invest in the industry and to improve its technology. After the Industrial Revolution in England, the handicraft industry faced further decay as traditional textile exports from India couldn't compete on scale and price with finished industrial goods. Easy availability of British goods without import duties further eroded home market demand for the handicraft industry. 

        Rural Decline- Other aspects of colonialism in India were the commercialization of agriculture and the subsequent decline of food grains production in the country. The rural economy was the backbone of the Indian economy during pre-colonial times. The British traders firstly seduced farmers in the transformation of crops from food grains to commercial crops like indigo, opium, etc which was commercially profitable for Company traders with a serious drawback for peasants. This negatively impacted economy as final products was purchased at lower prices while the reduction of food grains led to impoverishment and famines thus wiping out the purchasing power of rural masses. The survival and flourishing of home industries further took a beating indirectly as the home markets shrank while British traders benefited immensely under colonial rule.

       The drain of wealth - Another way by which Britishers exploited India was through the systematic policy of ferrying the economic resources of India to Britain. The officials of the British government were paid exorbitant incomes out of the Indian exchequer money by the levy of taxes on the Indian public.

          The industrial revolution and favorable conditions for British traders under colonial rule in India ended the role of individual artisans, caused havoc in the rural economy and caused irreparable damage to the textile, handicraft industry of India. However, in England and other European countries, the loss of craftsmen was compensated by the growth of industry and factory system. In India, the colonial policies did not allow the industry to grow freely and hence Indian economy shrank considerably under colonial rule. From the economy of India producing about 25 percent of world industrial output in 1750 before colonial rule, this figure fell to only 2 percent by 1900 during colonial rule. Therefore we can conclude that Colonial rule in India by its inherent nature, lopsided policies, and greed for profit worked for benefit of England and in turn impoverished India. 

Q2. What is communalism? Discuss the process of its emergence in Indian society.

A.   Communalism arises among the society when a particular religious or sub-religious group tries to dominate and promote its own interests at the expense of others. In simple terms, it can be defined as to distinguish people on the basis of religion. Communalism is political trade in religion to further the interests of one religious community by intimidating or subjugation of rest. It is an ideology on which communal politics is based and communal violence is threatened or perpetrated in the society causing division of society on a religious basis. It is basically an ideology which consists of three elements:-

1.  A belief that people who follow the same religion have common secular interests i.e. they have the same political, economic and social interests. It leads to communal groupings and division of society.

2.  A presumption that in a multi-religious society like India, these common secular interests of one religion are dissimilar and divergent from the interests of the follower of another religion.

3.  The interests of the follower of the different religions or of different ‘communities’ are seen to be completely incompatible, antagonist and hostile towards followers of other faiths marking social division and religious hatred among different religious communities.

         Communalism is used to construct religious or ethnic identity, incite strife between people identified as different communities, and to stimulate communal violence between those groups. It derives from history, differences in beliefs, and tensions between the communities.

 The emergence of Communalism in Indian society

Communalism was a method for providing service to colonialism and the jagirdari class (land officials). British authorities supported communal feelings and divided Indian society for their authoritative ruling.  Official patronage was given to communal organizations and attempts were made to placate several organizations with communal orientation. Communal press & persons and agitations were shown extraordinary tolerance. Communal demands were accepted, thus politically strengthening communal organizations. British started accepting communal organizations and leaders as the real spokesperson of communities and adopted a policy of non-action against communalism. In fact, for the same reasons even the communal riots were not crushed. Separate electorate started in 1909 further divided the society causing irreparable damage to social fabric creating a wedge that eventually led to the division of the country .

Stages in Indian Communalism

          The first stage was the rise of nationalist organizations of Hindu, Muslim, Sikh, etc. which were tacitly supported by British Colonial rulers. Roots of this were led in the latter part of the 19th century with the Hindu revivalist movements like the Shuddhi movement of Arya Samaj and the Cow protection riots of 1892. People like Syed Ahmed Khan, who despite having a scientific and rational approach, projected Indian Muslims as a separate community (qaum) having an interest different from others.

         The second stage was of Liberal communalism, it believed in communal politics but liberal in democratic, humanist and nationalist values. It was basically before 1937. For example organizations like Hindu Mahasabha, Muslim League and personalities like M.A. Jinnah, M M Malviya, Lala Lajpat Rai after the 1920s. 

         The third was the stage of Extreme communalism, this had a fascist syndrome. It demanded a separate nation, based on fear and hatred. There was a tendency to use violence of language, deed, and behavior. For example the Muslim League and Hindu Mahasabha after 1937.

Thus the Colonial rulers sowed the seeds of communal hatred in society causing deep division of Indian society leading to communal riots and eventual division of the country on a religious basis. The British rulers adopted the policy of 'Divide and Rule' to strengthen their roots while living in India. They divided the people of various communities of India and spread the feeling of distrust among them and hence they sowed the seeds of communalism in India.

IGNOU (Introduction)

My greetings to all the visitors of my blog. Here I have attempted to answer questions normally asked in the BA course in IGNOU. The subjects I have taken here are-

First Year -
EHI-01       - History of Modern India 1857-1964
EHI-02     - History of India: Earliest Times to the 8th Century A.D.
BSHF-101 - Foundation Course in Humanities and Social Sciences

Second Year -
EHI - 3  - India From 8th To 15th Century A.D. 
EHI - 4 - India From 16th To Mid 18th Century 
BPSE - 212 - Government And Politics In India 
FST-1 - Foundation Course in Science and Technology 

Third Year -
EHI - 5 - India frim Mid-18th to Mid-19th Century
ANC - 1 - Nutrition for the Community
ACS - 01 - Application Oriented Course in Consumer Studies

You will be hopefully benefited from my efforts. You can write to me about your problems at - garv560@gmail.com. I want readers of this blog to also visit and subscribe to my other blog - https://gauravsainii.blogspot.com

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EHI - 02

8th Part

Block 9 (Unit 36)

Q. Discuss the factors responsible for the decline of trade in Post Gupta Period

A. Indian foreign trade reached its peak during the post-Mauryan period and trading declined both internal and external Post Gupta period. Some of the factors responsible for the decline were -

1) The decline of the Roman Empire had a devastating impact on trade with India. There is no evidence of Roman and other western coins excavated suggesting the complete collapse of trade with the west.

2) The emergence of the Arabs and the Persians as competitors in trade did not augur well for Indian merchants who couldn’t compete with them.

3) Silk and spices were important items in the Indo-Byzantine trade however by the middle of the sixth century A.D. the Byzantium learned the art of growing silkworms thus badly affecting the trade.

4) Unlike before the Gupta ties with Central Asia were weak and Whatever little remained of the contacts with Central Asia and Western Asia were completely wiped off by the Huna invasions severely affecting the trade. The decline of trade was just not limited to foreign trade. Long-distance internal trade too suffered owing to the weakening of links between coastal towns and the interior towns and further between towns and villages. The decay of towns and shrinkage in urban commodity production and the decline of trade were related problems. The decline of the status of traders and merchants in society during this period also indicates the falling fortunes of trade and commerce. The rise of numerous self-sufficient units dominated by landed beneficiaries also had an adverse effect on trade. In fact, the Kathasaritasagara, a later work, suggests that traders moved through forests to avoid the multiple payments of duties. Sea voyages and long-distance travel were taboo. Such attitudes surely did not promote the cause of trade.

Q. Discuss the major advances made in the field of agricultural technology

A. The detailed instructions about agriculture in texts like Agni Purana, Vishnudharmottara Purana, Krishiparasar, etc. prove the advancements in the field of agriculture. It is mentioned that cow dung and refuge were used for manuring the fields which are to improve the yield of the agricultural land. The Harshacharita tells us about different types of cultivation - plough cultivation, spade cultivation, and slash and bum cultivation, signifying different methods adopted by cultivators. Texts also suggested different methods employed for the treatment of plant and animal diseases. Inscriptions from Bengal mention rivers, rivulets, and channels in the context of rural settlements and their boundaries and we also come across the expression devamatrika (watered by rain7 suggesting the dependence of agriculture on rains and rivers. In South India tanks and reservoirs were built to irrigate the fields. During the rule of the Pallavas in South India, there were elected committees (eri-variyams) in the villages to look after the construction and maintenance of tanks and reservoirs. By the tenth century, araghattas or irrigational wells were in vogue in rural southeastern Marwar in Rajasthan.

Q. Discuss the main features of agrarian relations during the early medieval period.

A. Obligations of the Peasant - Land-grant charters during that period bestowed the beneficiary with superior rights over and above those of the inhabitants in the donated villages. The donee was entitled to collect all kinds of taxes. He could collect regular and irregular taxes and fixed and unfixed payments. This created a situation where the peasantry was subjected to an ever-increasing tax/rent burden. The Vakataka grants list fourteen types of dues. The Pallava records specify eighteen to twenty-two of them. By the turn of the first millennium A.D., the number of taxes increased enormously. The donees were empowered with the right to evict the

peasantry at will and to replace them with new peasants. From the seventh century onwards grants give away water resources, trees, bushes and pastures to the donee. The trend accelerated after the tenth century. The transfer of these resources to the donee not only affected the peasantry of the donated villages adversely but also

strengthened the power of the donees thus crushing the peasants.

Feudal Land Tenure - Landgrants led to hierarchical rights over land and sub-infeudation. The practice gave rise to a hierarchy of landlords, which lived off the surplus produced by the actual cultivators. The religious establishments in eastern India and the south with their enormous donations in the land, cash, livestock, etc. emerged as landed magnates who give it to their dependents which is further sub-leased to actual tillers. This created a class of peasantry that was overburdened with taxes and which was subsistent to a class of dominant landlords with superior rights inland.

Growth of Closed Economy - Early medieval Indian economy experienced the rise and growth of a number of rival settlements which were not linked to exchange networks and long-distance trade. Although the exchange networks did not entirely collapse, the transfer of settlements to various categories of donees had created a congenial atmosphere for the emergence of self-sustaining, closed units of production and consumption. The growing sense of localism and the self-sufficiency of the villages thus led to the growth of a closed economy.

Unit 37

Q. How far were the changes in the social order related to the changing economic patterns in the post-Gupta period.

A. The social changes in the Gupta and post-Gupta times can be related to economic changes. The major economic forces of the period were large scale Land grants, a decline of trade, commerce, & urban life; the paucity of money, agrarian expansion and growing agrarian character of society, and the emergence of relatively closed local units of production and consumption. On this basis evolved a social structure broadly characterized by a sizable ruling landed aristocracy, intermediaries and a large body of the impoverished peasantry. The unequal distribution of landed property and power led to the emergence of new social groups and ranks which cut across varna divisions like a brahmana, kshatriya, vaisya, and sudra. The other important changes in the social structure involved the emergence and proliferation of new castes, the hardening of caste relations and the acculturation of the most. The acculturation of tribes was not simply the result of the movement of Brahmanas into tribal areas as a result of land grants. This was caused by the emergence of local royal families in remote areas, and the Brahmanas were patronized mostly by these royal families with gifts of land, with employment at royal courts and other offers. This implies that when tribes lived there emerged a much more complex society in which social differentiation, represented by different

groups like peasants, Brahmanas, craftsmen, merchants, rulers, etc, were present.

Q. What do you understand by Varnasamskara.

A. Varnasamkara meant the inter-mixing and/or union of varnas/castes, normally not socially approved, leading to the emergence of mixed castes, which symbolized social disorder. With the substantial increase in the number of new castes greater rigidity was introduced into the caste system & inter-caste marriages came to be viewed with disfavor. Earlier, anuloma marriages or marriages between a bridegroom from an upper-caste & a bride from a lower caste were sanctioned. It was the pratiloma marriage (the reverse of anuloma) which was censured. However, increasingly anuloma marriages too were not favored.

Q. Discuss the changes in the Vaishya community with reference to their economic decline.

A. During the heyday of Indian foreign trade in the post-Mauryan times, the Vaisyas got identified with urban occupations and towns. In a predominantly agrarian setting of the post- Gupta period, the vaisya traders and merchants suffered economic loss and social degradation. Many of them crowded into agriculture to earn their living. According to evidence of texts, the lower strata of the Vaisyas who were free peasant landholders till the Gupta period were increasingly reduced to a state of dependence and subjection. The distinction between the Vaisyas and the Sudras got blurred as the differences in their occupations and standards of living faded away. Therefore, in writing of the later period, for example in the writings of Albiruni, both of them were bracketed together.

Q. Discuss the position of women during this period.

A. The position of women in society during this period was that of progressive decline. Marriage of women at an early age was common, pre-puberty marriage was being preferred. Formal education was denied to them and they were generally denied

property rights. The joint references to women and Sudras in contemporary literature such as the Brihatsamhita amply demonstrates the plight of women. They were debarred from various sacrifices & ceremonies. The practice of Sati (or

self-immolation by wife on the funeral pyre of her dead husband) gained social acceptance during this period. The change of women's gotra upon marriage can be dated to the period after the fifth century A.D. This constituted an important development because it marked the curtailment of their rights in their parental

home and symbolized the final triumph of the patriarchal system of a male-dominated society.

Q. The proliferation of castes was an important development in the Gupta and post-Gupta periods. Explain in 15 lines.

A. One important development which took place during this period was that the number of castes or jatis increased substantially. This development affected even the Brahmanas, the kshatriyas (and later the Rajputs), the Sudras and the untouchables as well. The existing varnas were split into many castes and many tribes that became transformed into castes were included in them. Differences within the varnas intensified as Brahmanical society expanded. Hierarchy emerged within each varna because of the acculturation and incorporation of various groups of people and communities at varying levels of cultural growth. Unequal access to economic and political power also helped the crystallization of caste distinctions

during this period. While a number of castes came to be incorporated within each varna, there are also examples of earlier cohesive communities breaking up into many varnas, jatis/castes. The Abhira tribe provides a good example as it fragmented

into Abhira Brahmanas, Abhira kshatriyas and Abhira sudras.

The Brahmanas

The number of castes that emerged among the Brahmanas was considerable. Brahmanas who "commercialized" their priestly services, those who came in contact with the aboriginals or those who could not entirely avoid physical labor stood degraded in the eyes of the srotriya agrahara Brahmanas, who did not engage in

manual labor. Thus there is the formation of different ranks within the brahmana varna. The same process was true also of the Kayastha.

The Kshatriyas

Among the kshatriyas, the proliferation of caste was caused by the emergence of new ruling houses from among the local tribes and the incorporation of foreign ethnic groups, wielding political power, into the mainstream of society. Among the foreign ethnic groups, the Bactrian Greeks, Sakas, Parthians, Hunas, etc. were accommodated in the varna system as second class kshatriya. Many ruling dynasties in the post-Gupta period emerged from humble origins and subsequently graduated to kshatriya status. The Pallavas and Chalukyas of peninsular India, Palas of Bengal and

Bihar and many sub-regional dynasties in Orissa had tribal origins. In the subsequent centuries, most Rajputs emerged from a tribal and/or pastoral base.

The Sudras

Endogamous groups coming from various communities and regions vastly expanded the base of the sudra varna. Petty peasant castes, rich peasants. share-croppers and artisanal castes, with unequal access to economic power, were included in the sudra varna in Gupta and post-Gupta times. Thus, sudra varna included widely disparate groups and came to comprise the largest number of castes. Tribes became castes as a consequence of their gradual transformation as peasants and these peasant groups were incorporated into the Brahmanic society as Sudras. This is how the number of people in Sudra Varna increased tremendously.

Unit 38

Q. Discuss the main differences between the Mauryan polity & the polity during 300 A.D. - 700 A.D.

A. When compared to the Mauryan polity the King's government during this period did not possess effective powers and control throughout its territory. In the outlying areas, the feudatory chiefs or Samanta had their administrative jurisdiction & their recognition of the King's authority was only nominal. The Mauryan gov't had

a large number of higher officials to control each and every social and economic activity in the major part of the empire. This was not so in the case of the Gupta empire or other contemporary polities, where many things were outside the state control. For example, while craft and merchant guilds were kept under strict government vigilance in the Mauryan state, they were more or less autonomous in the Gupta age. Even the laws pertaining to each guild were given due recognition in the latter case. Such fragmentation of Kingly powers during this period is to be attributed to certain major changes emerging in the socio-economic organization. Another feature, unlike the Mauryan period, was the emergence of feudalism in the country during the Gupta period. By granting land to priests and officials for their maintenance, generally, the King not only gave the land but also parted with some of his administrative rights like taxing the people, punishing the criminals, etc. The granted territories were also given immunity from the entry of the King's army. Naturally, the grantees of such lands became almost independent of the King and became Samanthas themselves. Thus Gupta period onward the political organization which developed in India represented a feudal-type of political organization.

Q. Write in about five lines the role of Samanthas in the polity.

A. Semi-independent local chiefs called Samanta led to the decentralized polity in the Gupta empire. Samudragupta conquered & subjugated a number of territories. Some of the rulers of these territories which were on the fringes of the Gupta empire were made subordinate allies of the King. They became feudatories, of the Gupta King paying periodical tribute to the latter. They were obliged to pay homage to the King by personally attending his court. The King, in turn, recognized their right to continue to rule over their own territories and for this he also gave them charters.

These subordinate rulers were also obliged to send their men to fight in the King's army during times of war. Subject to the above obligations the feudatories or Samantha's were left to look after the administration of their territories thus leading to decentralization of power.

Unit 39

Q. In what ways did the Bhakti Movement in the South differ from Brahmanism.

A. Unlike the Brahmanas who propagated Hinduism through esoteric theories and the use of Sanskrit, the hymnal saints sang in easily understood forms using only the popular language, Tamil. Their Bhakti was not a reverence for a transcendent deity, but ecstatic love for an imminent one. Whereas the Brahmanas were obsessed with caste regulations, the Bhakti movement not only ignored caste but also including men and women of all castes. Among the Nayanmar 'Karaikkal, Ammai was a woman and Nandanar was a member of the depressed class. Among the Alvars, Andal was a woman and Tiruppan was a hymnist from a "low caste". Thus the whole movement carried elements of protest and reform. The Bhakti cult emerged out of the various religious cults and became very strong in South India. It ignored caste regulations and women had a higher status in the Bhakti movement when compared to Brahmanism.

Q. Discuss the main features of Tantrism.

A. In the Tantric practices of the early medieval period, there were three important features, all of them interconnected. They are a higher status given to women, sexual rituals, and the presence of many female deities. Women enjoyed a higher status in all the tribal belts, unlike Sanskrit texts where they were bracketed with Shudras Similarly, among the primitive people in India and outside, sexual rites formed an important part of their religious rites. It was believed by the tribals that such rites promoted the fertility of the earth. The reason for the importance of female deities in Tantrism is that in all the tribal belts the cult of the mother goddesses was widely prevalent. The priests of Tantrism challenged the exclusive

rites of the Brahmanas. Tantrism served an important social purpose by generally providing for the initiation of lower castes and women, who were held to be of inferior status by the Brahmanical system.

Q. Discuss the relationship of Tantrism with other heterodox religions

A. Early Buddhism and Jainism tried their best to check the infiltration of these Tantric practices into their cults. In the earliest phase of their history, Buddhism and Jainism launched a systematic campaign against the cult of image worship, rituals and sacrifices as destructive of all morals. Slowly tantrism penetrated the two

religions. Mahayanism, a major development of Buddhism adopted image worship during the Kushana period. Mahayanism is said to have developed into Mantrayanism or Vajrayanism in the Andhra region by adopting Tantric practices. Many Tanmc texts emerged since the third century A.D. from Andhra and Kalinga and spread to Vanga and Magadha where Nalanda developed as a center of Tantric study in the reign of the Palas. In the early medieval age, Tantrism infiltrated into Jainism on a significant scale. As a result, Jainism developed a pantheon of Yakshas and Yakshis (the attendant demi-gods and goddesses of the Tirthankaras) together

with a number of mantras (magical formulae) to propitiate them. Many Jaina Tantric texts, which incorporated elements of magic and miracle, glorified the cult of Yakshis. The Yapaniya sect of the Jainas was the foremost in propagating Tantric mode of worship in early medieval Karnataka.