BPSE - 212

2nd Part
Block-2

Q1. Constituent Assembly

A. A constituent assembly is the body of experts which makes the constitution of any country. There were two broad types of leadership in the Constituent Assembly: 

(I) political and (2) technical. 

                   Because of the predominance of the Congress party, the

political leadership was spearheaded by its leaders. The top of this leadership consisted of Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, and Dr. Rajendra Prasad. In this Constituent Assembly Congress had an overwhelming majority. But the Congress party had nominated several members from outside the party's fold. Many of them were legal experts and leading legislators in the previous British Indian legislatures. The shape of the opposition in the Constituent Assembly was unstable. The Cabinet Mission had divided the Indians into three communities - the General, the Muslims, and the Sikhs. The Congress party overwhelmingly dominated the 'General' section and had come into an agreement with the Sikh Akal Panth. It also had nominated a few nationalist Muslims like Abul Kalam Azad and Rafi Ahmed Kidwai.

            The provisions of the Constitution were extensively debated upon in the several Committees that were formed for this purpose before being presented to the Assembly for its consideration. On the basis of the deliberations in the Assembly, the Drafting Committee, which was constituted on 29 August 1947, prepared the draft text of the Constitution.

Q2. What was Cabinet Mission and what was its plan? What was the proposal of the Cabinet Mission Plan on the Interim Government?

A. In January 1946 there were elections to the provincial legislature. In March 1946, a committee of the British Cabinet, known as the Cabinet Mission visited India to assess the Indian political situation and frame a scheme for making a constitution for India. This team was led by Sir Pethick-Lawrence. The Cabinet Mission recommended for establishment of Constituent assembly consisting of the representatives of all the major groups. The Cabinet Mission thought that, though the ideal way to form it would be through the election on the basis of adult suffrage but

there was no time left for that. Earlier that year provincial legislatures had been elected on the basis of a limited franchise and communal electorates. The Cabinet Mission proposed that the Constituent Assembly be elected by those provincial assemblies.

Interim Govt.

The Cabinet Mission proposed that, while the work of Constitution-making should continue, the interim government headed by the Governor-General with the help of representatives of the major political parties should continue to work in the meantime. There was some difference between the Congress and the Muslim League on the composition of the Interim Government, but they were sorted out. A new Executive Council was set up first with mostly Congress members and then including Muslim League representatives.

Fundamental Rights -

                The Fundamental Rights are enshrined in Part III of the Constitution, and their implementation is guaranteed by the Supreme Court. In other words, Fundamental Rights are justiciable which means they are enforced by law. Some of the Fundamental Rights are applicable only to the citizens of the country and not to

foreigners. Article 20, Article - 21 and Article 22 are, however, applicable to all. Except during an 'Emergency', Fundamental Rights cannot be suspended. However, even during an Emergency Article 20 Article 21 cannot be withheld. The Constitution was amended by the Forty-Fourth Amendment Act and through Article 359-1 A, it was stated that Article 20 and Article 21 cannot be suspended even when a proclamation of Emergency is in operation.

Right to Freedom -

The Constitution also ensures the Right to Freedom under Articles 19 to 22. Article 19 guarantees the right to freedom of speech and expression, right to peaceful assembly, right to form associations, right to visit and reside in any part of the country and the right to profess and practice one's religion. These rights too, are subject to any reasonable restrictions that can be imposed by the state. Article 20 guarantees that no person shall be punished on the basis of laws that are enacted after a crime has been committed, no person should be punished more than once for the same offense and protection from standing trial against oneself.

Article 21 ensures the protection of 'personal life and liberty'. In other words, the state does not have the right to take away the life of a person, except through the procedure established by law. Article 21A provides the right to education. Article 22 prohibits the detention of persons without trial. However, in certain cases, preventive detention of a person up to three months and, in some cases, beyond that is permitted.

Right to Equality

The Constitution ensures the Right to Equality to its citizens under Articles 14 to 18. Article 14, guarantees the Right to Equality before the Law. In other words, this article ensures that all persons can be tried in a court of law and every person can approach the courts for justice and that no person shall be discriminated against in the application of laws, nor can any person claim special privileges and favoritism. Article 15 guarantees protection from discrimination on the basis of 'religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth'. It provides for equal access and thus the Right against

Discrimination. It also, however, states clearly that the state can make special provisions for the uplift of certain categories of people like socially and culturally backward classes and Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. Article 16 provides for the Right to Equality of Opportunity in employment. Continuing with its desire to ensure equality of all citizens, the Constitution also abolished untouchability whose practice is a crime under Art 17, while Article 18 abolished Tittles.

The Directive Principles of State Policy (DPSP) -

The Directive Principles of State Policy (DPSP) are an adaptation from the Irish Constitution. These are broad guidelines that have to be borne in mind while enacting laws and in implementing them. Unlike the Fundamental Rights, the DPSP are not justiciable. The Constitution does not provide for their guarantee and, therefore, their enforcement can not be questioned in a court of law. The DPSP prescribes that the state shall ensure -

40. - Organization of village panchayats.

41.- Right to work, to education and to public assistance in certain cases.

42. - Provision for just and humane conditions of work & maternity relief.

43. - Living wage, etc., for workers.

43A. -Participation of workers in the management of industries.

44.- Uniform civil code for the citizens.

45. - Provision for early childhood care and education to children below the age of six years.

46. - Promotion of educational and economic interests of Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, and other weaker sections.

47.- Duty of the State to raise the level of nutrition and the standard of living and to improve public health.

48.- Organisation of agriculture and animal husbandry.

48A. - Protection and improvement of environment & safeguarding of forests and wildlife.

49.- Protection of monuments and places and objects of national importance.

50.- Separation of judiciary from the executive.

51. - Promotion of international peace and security

Fundamental Duties -

The Fundamental Duties enshrined in the Constitution are an obligation to the citizens of India to strive for the common benefit of all. They are expected to accord respect to the Constitution, the National Tri-colour and the Anthem. They are expected to work for upholding the unity and integrity of the country and work for a

harmonious society setting aside all divisive tendencies. The citizens of the country have a duty to protect its resources both natural and material. By an amendment 42nd Amendment Act 1976, a list of Fundamental Duties of Citizens of India was inserted in the Constitution in the form of Article 51A in Part IVA. The legal status of Fundamental Duties, which are addressed to citizens is quite like the Directive Principles, which are addressed to the State, in the sense that there are no provisions for their direct enforcement. The Supreme Court has held the Fundamental Duties to be obligatory in nature .

Supreme Court & Habeas Corpus-

         The Supreme Court is the custodian of the Constitution. Laws enacted by the legislature can be declared invalid by the Supreme Court if it is of the opinion that they are not in conformity with the provisions of the Constitution. This power is known as the power of 'judicial review'. Besides, the Supreme Court & the High Courts can also issue writs to the government and its agencies. A well-known example is the Writ of Habeas Corpus. An applicant can plead in front of SC to issue writ thus asking the Supreme Court to direct the concerned police authorities to present before the court a person who is missing and is believed to be under their custody.

Q. Examine the Parliaments powers to amend the Constitution of India.

A.      Article 368 together with other articles, empowers the Parliament to make amendments to the Constitution. The amendment procedure laid down in the constitution is both rigid and soft for different articles. While some need only a simple majority, most need a majority of two-thirds present and voting in both the Houses of Parliament and the assent of the President. The toughest amendment procedure prescribed requires, besides the two-thirds present and voting and requirement, also the consent of at least half the number of Legislatures in States in the country. And furthermore, it also requires the assent of the President. Parliament is authorized to amend the Constitution as long as it did not amend the 'basic features of the Constitution. Besides, the Supreme Court has the power to decide whether an amendment to the Constitution, indeed, were against the basic features of the Constitution or not.

Q. How is citizenship acquired in India.

A.   Under Articles 5 to 8 of the Constitution, the following categories of persons became the citizens of India at the date of the commencement of Constitution on 26 November 1949, i.e. the date on which the Constitution was adopted by the Constituent Assembly.

a) those domiciled and born in India;

b) those domiciled, not born in India but either of whose parents was born in India;

c) those domiciled, not born in India, but ordinarily resident in India for more than five years;

d) those residents in India, who migrated to Pakistan after 1 March 1947 and returned later on resettlement permits;

e) those residents in Pakistan, who migrated to India before 19 July 1948 or those who came afterward but stayed on for more than 6 months and got registered;

f) those whose parents and grandparents were born in India but were residing outside India.

Through Part II of the Constitution, the Parliament is authorized to make laws pertaining to acquisition and termination of citizenship subsequent to the commencement of the constitution.

Q  What are the provisions related to citizenship in the Indian Constitution.

A.  Answer includes Fundamental Rights, Right to equality, Right to Freedom & to 'elections' and 'franchise' are especially important in the context of the long history Constitution of deprivation of political rights under colonial rule. It is significant that the Constitution made 'universal adult franchise' the basis of elections to the Lok Sabha and the Legislative Assembly of States. Article 326 of the Constitution conferred voting rights to all citizens above the age of 21 (changed to 18 by the Constitution 61st Amendment Act of 1988, with effect from 1 April 1989). It is crucial that the Constitution did not lay down any property and education criteria. Women were given equal rights as men.

Q. What are the major limitations of the Indian Constitution concerning the citizenship rights of women and other underprivileged sections?

A.  A major limitation of the Indian Constitution relating to the citizenship rights of women lies in the fact that a crucial provision relating to the removal of discrimination against women and other underprivileged sections is listed as DPSP. As a result of it, the substantive citizenship rights that can be enjoyed by women and

others are not enforceable by law but obligatory in nature. Forex. Article 39 of the Constitution advise the State to frame its policies towards securing',

(a) that the citizens, men, and women equally, have the right to an adequate means of livelihood; and

(b) that there is equal pay for equal work for both men and women.

Although the courts have in certain cases intervened to provide equal pay for equal work, substantive economic equality for women remains elusive. Legally too, women face numerous disabilities. The provisions of Article 44 of the Directive Principles advise the State to implement uniform civil code to all its citizens throughout the territory of India. Various women's groups have demanded that this directive be implemented to rectify women's subordinate position in society. Matters pertaining to marriage, dowry, divorce, parentage, guardianship, maintenance, inheritance, succession, etc., which are presently determined by the 'personal laws' of specific religious communities should be done away with rather Uniform Civil Code should be enforced to improve the condition of women . While there is a diversity of opinion among women's groups, they have, by and large, demanded a system of gender-just laws that would help them realize their potential as citizens of the country.

Q. In what way do the institutions, like the National Commission for Women and the National Human Rights Commission help us enhance our citizenship rights?

A.  To raise the issues relating to the rights of women and other citizens through various means including the public Interest litigation and social Action Litigation, the National Commission for Women was set up in 1992 under a Parliamentary Act (The

National Commission for Women Act, 1990). The women’s commission has been given wide-ranging powers to investigate and recommendations to the govt. Authorities. It is concerned with

matters relating to women's rights under the constitution and issues of women's socio-economic conditions, health, and violence perpetrated against them. Over the years the Commission has taken up cases of violence, torture, and harassment of women(including molestation, rape, dowry-related violence, custodial rape and death, torture and harassment within the family or in the workplace. The women’s commission is also involved in issues of women's legal and political rights.

              The National Human Rights Commission is another institution established by an Act of Parliament (The National Human Rights Act, 1993). It was set up to inquire into violations of people's rights by the govt agencies. It also possesses the right to

investigate and make a recommendation to protect citizens. Institutions like the National Commission for Women and National Human Rights Commission, when effectively used or pressurized by the civil society, could contribute towards the establishment of a just society. It helps in securing the vulnerable section & encourages them to lead a life of dignity.

Q. What are the important features of a parliamentary system of government?

A. Parliamentary democracy is characterized by the fusion of executive and legislative powers into a single body. The executive, the cabinet ministers, sit as members of parliament and play a double role in the fusion of executive and legislative powers. Those who recommend legislation as members of the cabinet also vote on the same legislation as members of the governing legislation. Typically, the government is the Cabinet & the rest of the members of the majority party or coalition of parties in the parliament. The government, in a sense, has an automatic majority & most decisions are made from among these groups. Since the executive is selected on the basis of majority support in the parliament and not directly elected, the government is accountable only to the parliament.

Secondly, the executive branch of government is divided into a large formal head of state (the monarch) and the head of the government (the Prime Minister) who exercises most of the executive powers and is responsible to the parliament. The function of the head of the state is not to govern but to see that there is a government. When a crisis occurs, either through the break down of a coalition government or through some national emergency, the head of the state has the responsibility to select an individual to form a government and get on with the business of governing. The Prime Minister is the head of the government, whose function is to make policy and suggest laws through his or her subordinates. The

Prime Minister leads the Cabinet and therefore the government.

Q. What are the fundamental features of the parliamentary system in India

A.  They are as follows -

• A government is formed as a result of parliamentary elections. It is based upon the strength of the party that has the majority or a coalition of parties in the parliament;

• The fundamental feature of the parliamentary system is political pluralism. It allows the presence of competing political parties with diverse ideologies and goals reflecting the interests and aspirations of a heterogeneous polity;

• Ministers or the members of the real executive (government) are drawn from the party in the parliament that has gained the majority in the parliament or are a party to the coalition;

• The government is responsible and accountable to the parliament, it means that the govt can continue to function as long as it has the parliament’s confidence and can be removed in case of loss of that confidence;

• The government can recommend dissolution of the parliament and call a general election in case no party is in a position to form the government. It means that electoral terms are usually flexible within a maximum limit;

• The parliamentary executive is collective and the nature of power diffusion is collegial ;

• The posts of the head of the government and the head of the state are separate with the President being the constitutional figurehead and the Prime Minister, leading the Council of Ministers, the real executive.

Q. What does the term collegial executive or parliamentary democracy mean?

A. Parliamentary democracy means a collegial executive. Although the Prime Minister is the chief executive, he or she is not a singular executive. The collegial executive is a collection of ministers (Cabinet) who must make decisions as a group. The cabinet must be in general agreement before legislation is recommended or

policies are proposed. The ministers are both individually and collectively responsible to the parliament for their actions. Parliamentary democracy also means a democracy based on party responsibility. 

                   As we know in a parliamentary democracy, the majority party or a coalition of parties commanding a majority in the parliament forms the government. The political parties in a parliamentary system have a party’s manifesto and on which the

position of the party with regard to a wide variety of issues is stated. The party manifesto is adhered to by the govt with as much consistency as possible. When the cabinet suggests a piece of legislation that would fulfill a pledge made in the party manifesto, all members of the majority party must vote for that particular law.

Failure to do so invites the wrath of the party. The member will not be nominated as the party’s candidate to run in the next election thus losing the party’s ticket. The government is a parliamentary system, therefore, it has a built-in majority on most issues and it will generally prevail.

              The minority party may debate the issues, the laws, and the proposals, and they may even succeed in causing minor changes through suggested amendments. However, the minority can never defeat a bill initiated by the majority so long as the rule of party responsibility holds.

BPSE - 212

BPSE (Government And Politics In India)
1st Part 
Block-1 (Unit-1)

Colonialism: A system where a country dominates and exploits another country in all aspects of life, especially economic.

Neo-colonialism: It is a system in which the economy of the colony gets integrated with that of the metropolitan country by the development of infrastructures like railways and transport.

Q1 What was new features to the 16-18th-century colonization?

A.   The new feature of the 16-18" century colonialism was that unlike the earlier colonialism it saw the forced incorporation of the major part of the world by a small part of it. One small part of the world with the use of force and better technology subdued a major part of the globe. A few countries like Spain, Portugal, Holland, Britain, and France established political domination over the rest of the world. Unlike earlier when the balance kept shifting between different powers, colonialism established the rule and domination of a few countries over the entire world. Before the rise of

colonialism, the level of development of many countries like India or China or some Arab countries were as high or higher than that of the colonizing powers. In fact, the Mediterranean or the Indian Ocean trade was controlled by the Arabs. It was therefore only with the colonization that the decline of countries like India begins. In a few decades, the west had established absolute supremacy in most fields over the countries.

              The exploitation of the resources of the colonies by a small number of metropolitan countries and the ruination of the economy of the colonies was another important feature of colonialism.

Q2. Describe different phases of colonialism.

A.    The defeat of Siraj-ud-Daula in 1757 at the battle of Plassey was the beginning of the colonial rule. After the battle of Buxar in 1765, the Diwani of Bengal passed into the hands of the British. (Bengal revenue circle then comprised what are now West Bengal, Bangladesh, Bihar, and Orissa). Firstly, The East India Company under the charter of the British parliament was given the monopoly of trade with the East including India. After these battles, they established political control over the conquered territories. The British used their political control to bring the economy under their direct command. Rapidly the direction of the Indian economy was changed to serve the interests of the British economy. Trade and

revenue were then the two direct means through which they exercised their control to exploit the Indian economy and transfer the surplus to Britain which was soon to enter on the stage of a long Industrial revolution. All of this had very disastrous

repercussions for India. There were 3 stages of colonialism -

1) First Stage Monopoly trade and revenue appropriation - 

The Period of East India Company's Domination, 1757-1813. The first was to acquire a monopoly of trade with India. This meant that other English or European merchants or trading companies should not compete with it in the purchase and sale of Indian products. Nor

should the Indian merchants do so. This would enable the East India Company to buy Indian products as cheaply as possible and sell them in World markets at as high a price as possible. Thus the Indian economic surplus was appropriated through monopoly trade. The English competitors were kept out by persuading the British Government to grant the East India Company through a Royal Charter a monopoly of the right to trade with India and the East. Against the European rivals, the Company had to wage long and fierce wars on land and the sea. To acquire a monopoly against Indian traders and to prevent Indian rulers from interfering with its trade, the Company took advantage of the disintegration of the Mughal Empire to acquire increasing political domination and control over different parts of the country. After political conquest,

Indian weavers were also employed directly by the Company. In that case, they were forced to produce cloth at below-market prices. 

The second major objective of colonialism - at this stage was to directly appropriate or take over governmental revenues through control over state power. The East India Company required large

financial resources to wage wars in India and on the seas against European rivals and Indian rulers and to maintain naval forces, forts, and armies around their trading posts, etc. The much needed financial resources had, therefore, to be raised in India from the Indian people. This provided another incentive to make territorial

conquests in India. For money appropriation, the first method was barred because of the British produced hardly any goods which could be sold in India in competition with Indian products. British industrial products could not compete with Indian handicraft

products until the beginning of the 19th century. It is important to note that at this stage there was no large scale import of British manufacturers into India; rather the reverse occurred, that is, there was an increase in exports of Indian textiles, etc. The weavers were, for example, not ruined at this stage by British imports but because of the Company's monopoly and their exploitation by being forced to produce for the company under uneconomic conditions. This period witnessed a large scale drain of wealth from India. This wealth played an important role in financing Britain's

industrial revolution. The drain of Wealth from India constituted 2 to 3 percent of Britain's national income at the time.

2) Second Stage 1813-1857 - Britain was after 1750 undergoing the Industrial Revolution. The newly developing industrial capitalists began to attack the East India Company and the forms of its exploitation of India. They did not gain much from a monopoly trade in Indian products or from the Company's control over Indian

revenues. They wanted India to serve as a market for their ever-increasing output of manufactured goods, especially textiles. They also needed from India exports of raw materials, especially cotton, and food grains. second stage. India must become a subordinate trading partner of Britain, as a market to be exploited and as a

dependent colony to produce and supply the raw materials and food-stuffs Britain needed. India's economic surplus was to be appropriated through trade based on unequal exchange. As a result, Britain increasingly produced and exported goods which were produced in factories using advanced technology and less labor, and in which the level of productivity and wages was high. On the other hand, India produced agricultural raw materials through backward methods of production using a great deal of labor leading to low productivity and low wages. This international division of

labor was, moreover, not only highly unfavorable to India but was unnatural and artificial. It was introduced and maintained forcibly by implementing colonial policies.

            After 1813 India's colonial economy was integrated with the British and world capitalist economy. The chief instrument of this was the introduction of free trade. All import duties in India were either totally removed or drastically reduced to nominal rates. Thus India was thrown open to British manufactures. Free entry was also now given to British capitalists to develop tea, coffee and indigo plantations, trade, transport, mining, and modern industries in India. The British Indian government gave active state help to these capitalists. The agrarian structure of India was also transformed for better revenue generation, through the Permanent Settlement and the Ryotwari systems. Many changes were now brought about in the administrative field. The administration was made more elaborate and comprehensive and it reached down to the villages and outlying areas of the country so that British goods could reach, and agricultural products are drawn from, its interior villages and remotest parts. The legal and judicial structure of India was overhauled to promote capitalist commercial relations and maintain law and order. The changes, however, related to criminal law, the law of contract and legal procedures. Personal law, including that relating to marriage and inheritance, was largely left untouched since it did not in any way affect the colonial transformation of the economy. India played a crucial role in the development of British capitalism during this stage. British industries, especially textiles, were heavily dependent on exports. India absorbed 10 to 12 percent of British exports and nearly 20 percent of Britain's textile exports.

Third Stage 1860-1947 - During this stage, Britain's position in the world was constantly challenged and weakened by the rival capitalistic countries. It now made vigorous efforts to consolidate its control over India. After 1850, a very large amount of British capital was invested in railways, loans to the Government of India, trade and to a lesser extent in plantations, coal mining, jute mills, shipping and banking in India. India also performed another important role for Britain. Its army -men and financial resources - could be used to fight Britain's rivals in the struggle for the division and re-division of the world. In fact, the Indian army was the chief instrument for the defense, expansion, and consolidation of the British empire in Africa and Asia. Politically and administratively the third stage of colonialism meant renewed and more intensive control over India. Moreover, it was now even more

important than ever before that colonial administration should reach out to every nook and corner of India. The administration now became more bureaucratically tight, efficient and extensive than earlier. Railways were built at even a faster rate.

Q3. What was the impact or consequences of colonialism?

A. Impact - First phase - the impoverishment of the peasantry - British enormously raised the share of govt. revenue collected. It has been estimated that the total revenue collected from the Bengal Diwani in the first few years of British rule was doubled whereas for the last 100 years it had remained the same which was a huge increase. It overburdened the peasantry which led to severe famines and death of a third of the population. British introduced land revenue system like -

(a)Permanent Settlement created by Cornwallis in Bengal, where the government gave over the right of revenue collection to a small number of large Zamindars who had powers over cultivators now reduced to tenants. The Zamindars had to pay to government fixed

amount which was fixed but was kept high that broke the bone of the peasantry.

(b) Ryotwari of Elphinstone in Bombay presidency and of Munro in Madras presidency where direct settlements were made with the peasant proprietors and periodic revenue assessment was made every 20-30 years. The revenue demand was kept so

high it led to the impoverishment of peasants.

Impact - The Second Phase-De-industrialisation and its Effects also ( Q. -(500 words) - developmental impact on Indian political economy.)

A.  During this phase, colonialism had a dual impact on the Indian political economy the destructive and developmental.

Destructive - Before colonization, manufacture in India was spread all over the country and were closely tied up within the agrarian economy and the relation between agriculture and manufactures was mutually beneficial. Much of the secondary manufacturers were destroyed during the course of the first half of the 19h century and during this period no new industry grew in India. From around the first decade of the 19th century, the Indian economy was integrated with the British economy, thus, India became a subordinate partner. This was achieved by the introduction of the policy of free trade. That is the exports of goods from Britain would be exempt from customs duties while goods produced in India had to pay a higher duty than those imported from Britain. Exports like cotton textiles for which India was famous all over and which they used to export in large quantities was one such example.

Within a few decades, cotton textiles completely disappeared from the list of India's exports instead of textiles from Britain that captured the markets. In the 1880s, 40% of British textiles were exported to India.

           The story was the same for other manufacturers. For silk goods, the British forced the weavers under its control to give

up weaving and replaced it with the production of raw silk as the sale of raw silk in Europe was found to be more profitable. Britain also monopolized the manufacture and sale of salt, opium (a key item in trade with China), indigo (very important in the

bleaching of cotton goods), etc. Many other manufacturers were also decimated. By the second half of the 19th-century de-industrialization was complete. Its consequence on agriculture was extremely damaging. People who were thrown out of secondary manufacturing thronged to agriculture for survival, thus land had to

support so many more people. This further led to the ruination of the already impoverished peasantry. As the number of people on land went on increasing, the relations of peasants with the landlord (or the superior owners) were worsening on the one hand and the number of landless agricultural laborers increasing enormously.                        The result of this process was immediate of a two-fold character: there was first the absolute reduction in the wages of workers in agricultural operations and then there was secondly the increase in the rent the peasants were forced to pay and in failure to pay rents led to the frequent eviction of the tenants.

Developmental - The colonialism had the following developmental impact on the Indian political economy.

First - The British Government improved river and canal systems in India. It encouraged the introduction and use of steamships on the rivers. It also tried to improve the road infrastructure. During the latter half of the 19th century, it encouraged and financed a large network of railways linking India's major cities and markets to its ports. By 1905 nearly 45,000 km. of railways had been built. Development of railway network contributed to the increase of India's economic exploitation. It was done through route alignment and fare-structure. Apart from the trunk routes linking the main cities to the capital, the railroad primarily was so aligned so as to link the interiors of the country to the port cities. It was done so that finished goods were exported into the interiors of India and raw material was procured at the cheapest possible price thus benefiting the British immensely. The fare for goods was higher if transported

between two interior places, e.g., between Indore and Gwalior but much lower. (almost half) if the same were to move from interior to the port cities, e.g. from Gwalior or Indore to Bombay or Calcutta. So that these would discourage internal trade but help external trade with Britain. That is how the British goods were supported while Indian goods were discouraged by the policies adopted leading to exploitation of India. Similarly, a modern postal and telegraph system was introduced to facilitate economic transactions.

Second - Many changes were now brought about in the administrative field. The administration was made more elaborate and comprehensive and it reached down to the villages and outlying areas of the country so that British goods could reach,

and agricultural products are drawn from, its interior villages and remotest parts. The legal and judicial structure of India was overhauled to promote capitalist commercial relations and maintain law and order. The changes were related to criminal law, the law

of contract and legal procedures. Personal law, including that relating to marriage and inheritance, was largely left untouched since it did not in any way affect colonial govt. Modern education was introduced with the objective to support the administration

and also to help transform India's society and culture. This transformation was needed for two reasons; it was expected to,

i)  create an overall climate of change and development and,

ii)  generate a culture of loyalty to the rulers.

             Thus English was introduced in schools and a new class of Indians well versed in English emerged.

Third Phase - The third important change to which reference has to be made is the development of modem irrigation networks. During the second half of the 19th century, the British govt facilitated the expansion in irrigated areas. The British govt undertook the construction of vast irrigation networks although it was confined to a few areas. By 1914, 25 million acres of land were brought under cultivation. Some significant changes in the cropping pattern were also introduced. The govt encouraged the cultivation of exportable food grains and commercial crops. Although the development of irrigation channels brought more land under cultivation more focus on growing commercial crops adversely impacted the agrarian economy. Together with the development of railways, irrigation networks, the introduction of telegraph and telephone networks and large-scale mining gave a big push to the growth of trade both within India & between India & other countries especially Britain. Therefore by 1880s fairly sizeable Indian capitalist class was getting formed and was present in many areas but largely concentrated in and around the port-towns. This led in small ways to the beginning of capitalism under Indian entrepreneurs and slow growth of modem industry.

Impact: Third Phase-Imperialism and industrialization - With an excess of capital to export available in developed countries there was intense competition among these countries to export capital to countries like India and establish industries. The idea of such competition was to make huge profits and export these to the home countries This was a way of capturing the domestic market of the colonies for the benefit of the metropolitan economy. By 1914 India had developed a good industry. These industries were wide-spread but were concentrated in a certain enclave like the Jute

Textiles around Calcutta, Cotton Textiles around Bombay, etc. This process got a big push after the first world war. The important feature in this period was that the Indian capitalist who had accumulated large capital through trade started establishing industries on their own. After the war, Britain's position relatively

declined within the advanced capitalist world and it faced strong competition from other industrial powers. The Indian capitalist wrested large concessions from Britain to start industries and also forced it to modify the one-way free-trade. As a result of it, Indian industrialists got some state protection. The rise of the mass-based national movement also helped the aspiring Indian industrialist to bargain better with Britain. By the time of the second world war, India had achieved a good measure of self-sufficiency in consumer goods as also in crude & intermediate goods like pig-iron, steel, cement, etc. Much of what was imported from Britain earlier was being produced within the country itself this pattern of industrialization has been referred to by economists as "import-substitution" industrialization.

EHI - 3

8th Part 

Q.  Give a detailed account of the expansion of the Delhi Sultanate under the Khaljis.

A.  West And Central               

                            The expansion of the Delhi Sultanate started under the reign of Allauddin Khaliji. After consolidating his position and firmly establishing himself at Delhi, he undertook the first expedition in the region of Gujarat in 1299 as he was attracted by the wealth of Gujarat due to flourishing trade. After plundering Gujrat, the administrative control of Gujarat was entrusted to Alp Khan as governor. In the Western region, the next kingdom to fall was that of Malwa in 1305, It was an extensive region and was governed from the capital Mandu by Rai Mahalak Dev. The province of Malwa, after its fall, was given for administration to Ainul Mulk who was known to have soon brought Ujjain, Dhar, and Chadderi, too, under his control. Malwa was followed by Siwana, a town situated some eighty kilometers to the south-west of Jodhpur and the administration was given to Kamaluddin Gurg.  In the same year (1309), Jalor was attacked and its ruler Kanhar Dev was killed in the battle and the fort annexed to the Sultanate under the control of Karnaluddin Gurg.

North West and North

           Suppressing the prospects of revolt by the surviving member of Jalaluddin's family who had fled to Multan, Allauddin sent an expedition there thus consolidating Multan with Delhi Sultanate. In 1300, Alauddin sent Ulugh Khan to march against Ranthambhor ruled by Rai Harnir. Nusrat Khan, then posted at Awadh, joined Ulugh Khan. The Imperial army captured Jhain on the way and then laid a siege. The siege lasted for over six months and Ranthambhor was won as Hamir Dev died fighting. In pursuance of the policy, Alauddin attacked the kingdom of Chittor in 1303 and after several attempts succeeded as the ruler surrendered and Khizr Khan was assigned the governorship of, the territory.  By the end of the first decade of Alauddin's rule, the frontiers of the Delhi Sultanate had expanded to cover almost the whole of north, west and central India.

Deccan and Southward

                    The next military campaign in the Deccan was planned by Alauddin against Rai Ram Chandra Dev of Devagiri in 1306-7. An immediate cause for this was an unduly long delay in sending the annual tribute to Delhi in 1296. The Deccan campaign was given to Malik Kafur, while directions were sent to Ainul Mulk Multani and Alp Khan for providing assistance. Rai Ram surrendered and Devagiri became protectorate paying annual tributes besides parting with hefty wealth. The acquisition of wealth from southern kingdoms & not actual territorial annexation seems to have been the prime motive in sending these expeditions. Accordingly, in October 1309 be imperial army began its southward march under the command of Malik Kafur. Enroute a surprise assault was made by Malik Kafur on the fort at Sirpur (in Adilabad District). The nobles of Sirpur fled to Rai Rudra Dev of Warangal and the fort was captured by the imperial army.  By the middle of January 1310, the marching army had reached the suburbs of Warangal. On 14 February 1310, Kafur attacked the fort. The war came to an end because Rai Rudra Dev decided to surrender. He agreed to part with his treasures & pay an annual tribute as a token of submission. The province was not territorially annexed but accorded the status of a protectorate. Buoyed by the success at Warangal, a military expedition was now launched further south of Warangal against Dwarasamudra under Malik Kafur. The fort was besieged in February 1311 and was surrendered the next day by Ballala Dev, the ruler of Dwarasamudra. Encouraged by his success in Dwarasamudra, Malik Kafur decided to move further South to Madura, the capital of the Pandyas and captured it without resistance.  Alauddin's Deccan and southward campaigns were aimed at achieving two basic objectives:

 (i) formal recognition of the authority of Delhi Sultan over these regions and

(ii) the amassing of maximum wealth at the minimal loss of life.

This is how the Delhi Sultanate expanded under Khalji's. 

Q.  Trace the development of the Iqta system under the Delhi Sultans.

A.  In the early 13th century, the Turkish rulers of Delhi, in order to consolidate their position made revenue assignments i.e Iqta in lieu of cash to their nobles. The assignees who were known as rnuqti and wali collected revenue from these areas and after deducting their own expenses and paying for the troops maintained by them and sent the surplus amount to the center. lqta is an Arabic word and the institution had been in force in the early Islamic world as a form of reward for services to the State. It was used in the Caliphate administration as a way of financing operations and paying civil and military officers. The grant of iqta did not imply a right to the land nor was it hereditary. These revenue assignments were transferable, the iqta-holder being transferred from one region to another every three or four years. The assignments could be large (a whole province or apart). Assignments even to nobles carried administrative, military and revenue collecting responsibilities. Thus, the provincial administration was headed by the muqti or wuli. He had to maintain an army composed of horsemen and foot soldiers. 

             In the iqta system, the Delhi Sultans combined the two functions of revenue collection and distribution without immediately endangering the unity of political structure. The iqta was a territorial assignment and its holder was called the muqti or the wali.  the iqta was a revenue assignment that the muqti held at the pleasure of Sultan. The muqti was entitled to collect in a proper manner the land tax and other taxes due to the Sultan, he had no further claims on the person, women, and children, land or other possessions of the cultivators. The muqti had certain obligations to the Sultan the chief being the maintenance of troops and furnishing them a call to the Sultan. The iqta was a transferable charge and the transfers of iqtas were frequent.

             In the early years of the foundation of the Delhi Sultanate, neither the revenue income of these assignments was known nor the size of the contingent of the assignee was fixed. Certain modifications and mild attempts at introducing central control to some-extent were made by Balban (1266-86) when he appointed a khwaja (accountant) with each muqti: which implies that the Sultanate now was trying to find out the actual income of the iqta and muqti's expenditure.

               The real interventional in the iqta administration came under Alauddin Khalji. The central finance department perhaps prepared some sort of an estimated revenue income from each iqta. The audit was stringent, punishments severe transfers frequent and enhancements (taufir) were often made in the estimated revenue income of the iqta on various pretexts.

        Ghiyasuddin Tughluq(1320-25) introduced some moderation. The enhancements in the estimated revenue income by the central finance ministry was not to be more than 1/10 or 1/11th annually. The muqtis were allowed to keep 1/10th to 1/20th in excess of their sanctioned salaries. The attempt at center intervention reached its climax during the time of Muhammad Tughluq (1325-51). In several cases, a walk and an Amir was appointed to the same territory. There was no attempt to restore central control by the successors of Feroz Tughlaq. Under the Lodis (1451-1526), the administrative charges and revenue assignments were combined together and these were no more called iqta but were simply called sarkars and Parganas.

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250 words

Q   Discuss in brief the factors responsible for the Turkish conquest of India.

A.   Two major factors were-  the prevailing socio-political system in India and her military preparedness as against the Turks. 

        After the fall of the Gurjara-Pratihara empire, no single state took its place. Instead, there arose small independent powers like Gahadavalas in Kannauj, Parmaras in Malwa, Chalukyas in Gujarat, Chauhans in Ajmer, Tomars in Delhi, Chandellas in Bundelkhand, etc. Far from being united, they tended to operate within the confines of small territories and were in a state of perpetual internal conflicts. The lack of centralized power was an important factor in emasculating the strength and efficiency of the armed forces. Each military contingent was under the command of its immediate overlord/chief and not that of the king. Thus, the army lacked the 'Unity of Command'. Besides, since only a few castes and clans took the military profession, the bulk of the population was excluded from military training. This made the general population of the country totally detached from the defense of the country; when the Turks came, they found that Indian masses hardly came to the rescue of their kings. The concept of physical pollution (Chhut) also hampered military efficiency since it made the division of labor impossible; the soldiers had to do all their work on their own, from fighting to the fetching of water. Unlike Indians, the Turks were not divided into castes that were exclusive of each other. Another important reason for the success of the Turks was their superior military technology and the art of war. These nomads from the steppes could be credited with introducing the age of the horse'. The Turks used iron stirrup and horse-shoes that reinforced their striking power and the stamina of the cavalry, while horse-shoes provided greater mobility to the horse, stirrup gave the soldiers a distinct advantage. 

Q.    Discuss the nature of the conflict between the nobility and Delhi Sultans.

A.    After the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate, more and more areas were conquered and brought under the Central control. A large alien territory had to be pacified and governed and the ruling class had to be maintained and sustained. The early Turkish ruling class was very much in the'nature of a co-sharer of political and financial powers with the Sultans. In the beginning, the nobles were independent in distant areas of the conquered territories where they were sent by the Centre as governors. The latter was designated muqti or wali and their territories were known as iqtas. The muqtis or iqta-holders were required to furnish military assistance to the Sultan in times of need, apart from maintaining law and order in and collecting the revenue from their iqta. These revenue assignments were generally non-hereditary and transferable. In fact, it was through the institution of iqta that the Sultan was able to control the nobles. The muqti collected land revenue from the peasants of his territory and defrayed there from his own salary as well as that of his soldiers. The demand to send the excess amounts to the Sultan was symbolic of the trend towards centralization. Thus Nobles became gradually very powerful, The Sultans needed the support of the nobility to establish and maintain themselves in power. The Turkish nobles played an important part in elevating Sultans to the throne and supporting contenders to the throne. This created different centers of power which are the major conflict between the Sultans and the nobility. There were also incidents of rebellions in which the muqtis utilize and appropriated the resources of their areas, to rebel or to make a bid for the throne. The nobles sought to emphasize their exclusiveness and their

monopoly to rule thus challenging the rule of Sultans.

Q.   Write a short note on the growth of music under the Sultanate period.

A.   The 14th century is the most important period in the history of the Delhi Sultanate from the point of view of music, That music in some form was practiced in the courts of the early Sultans but the history of music during this period suffers from the lack of documentation.  The courtly revels included dancing and singing of Persian and Hindi songs by beautiful girls. But it was Amir Khusrau who has left an enduring mark on the music not only of the Sultanate but of India as a whole. Amir Khusrau was the disciple of the great sun saint Shaikh Nizamuddin Aulia of Delhi. He was also the court poet of Alauddin Khalji who was himself very fond of music. The genius of Amir Khusrau in the sphere of music was mainly utilized in innovating new compositions as well as in assimilating different forms of music prevalent in his time. He is credited with having introduced :

#  the qawwali mode of singing into the countryside for the first time.

#  several of our modem rags like Zilaph, Sazgiri, and Sarparda, etc., produced by combining Persian and Indian tunes.

#  Khayal form of singing by abandoning the traditional dhrupad.

#  a new musical instrument called sitar by combining the old Indian vina and the Iranian tambura.

#  modifications in the conventional percussion instrument mridang to bifurcate it into two and call them tabla.

 The changes introduced by Amir Khusrau had far-reaching social consequences in bringing together people of two divergent creeds while contributing immensely to music during the Sultanate period. 

Q.   Discuss with examples the salient features of architecture during the Sultanate period.

A.  Some of the salient features of architecture during the Sultanate period were - 

1) Arch and Dome - the incidence of masonry building including civilian housing in towns increases significantly after the 13th century. This was primarily possible due to the use of lime-mortar as the basic cementing material. The building of true arch required stones or bricks to be laid in the shape of a curve and bound together firmly by good binding material. The result of the introduction of the new technique was that the pre-Turkish forms like lintel and beam and corbelling were replaced by true arches and vaults and the spired roofs (Shikhar) by domes. In India, the pointed form of Arches was frequently used. In the 14th century, another variant of the pointed form the four-centered arch was introduced by the Tughluqs in their buildings.lt remained in vogue till the end of the Sultanate. 

2) Building Material - In the masonry work stone has been used abundantly. The foundations are mostly of rough and small rubble or of river boulders wherever it is available while the superstructure is of dressed stone or roughly shaped coarsed stonework. However, in either case, the buildings were plastered all over. The material commonly used for plastering buildings was gypsum. Lime-plaster was reserved for places that needed to be secured against the leakage of - water, such as roofs, indigo-vats, canals, drains, etc. In the later period, i.e. around the 15th century, when highly finished stucco work became common, gypsum mortar was preferred for plasterwork on the walls and the ceiling

3) Decoration - Decorative art in the Islamic buildings served the purpose of concealing the structure behind the motifs rather than revealing it. The elements of decoration were, in most cases, limited to:

a) calligraphy  b) Geometry and  c) foliation 

           It was by their manipulation that a rich and sumptuous effect was obtained in the Sultanate buildings. No one type of decoration was reserved for a particular type of building These pan-Islamic decorative pieces were used for all kinds of buildings in the Delhi Sultanate. Calligraphy is an important element of decorative art in the buildings of this period. The Quranic sayings are inscribed on buildings in an angular, sober and monumental script. They may be found in any part of the buildings like frames of the doors, ceilings, wall panels, niches, etc., and in a variety of materials like stone, stucco, and paintings.

Q.  Who were Samantas? What role did they play in the politics of 8th to 12th century?

A.  Samantas were the land donor beneficiaries. They have fiscal and administrative rights, including those of policing and administration of criminal law and justice over the land under them. land grants created a landed aristocracy between the King and the cultivators. The Samantas in return paid regular tributes to the king, comply with imperial orders and make attendance at the imperial court on ceremonial occasions, administering justice, military obligations, etc. The territories over which Samantas have political control wasn’t static. The elevation of their position depended on the participation of Samantas in several battles on behalf of their overlord. On the basis of the services rendered these Samantas who were feudal lords were given the titles of nayaka, samanta, samnntadhipati or mahasamanta , mandalika, mahamandaleshvara, etc. These Samantas were also assigned bureaucratic positions during this time period. Local landlords or chieftains performed the role of integrators when they derived their administrative and financial powers from their overlords and paid tributes and performed various other obligations to them. However, the same landlords or Samantas became real breakers and wreckers when they lorded over peasants and artisans unmindful of overlords concern. They acted as an autonomous power within their territory even though the degree of autonomy varied from region to region. If the central government became weak the Samantas used to be practically independent and in such a situation they could extract their own terms for supporting the fortunes of their titular overlord. Their position became still more strong if there was a war of succession. They could then take sides and try to put their nominee on the imperial throne thus playing the role of the kingmakers. On such occasions, they could settle their old scores by dethroning their overlord and imposing their own terms on the new successor. Rashtrakuta Dhruva, Amoghavarsha-I and Amoghavarsha-II owned their thrones to a considerable degree to the support of their Samantas. These Samantas plays vital role politically and militarily during 8th to 12th century. A tilt in the balance of loyalty of the Samantas brought about the disintegration of even long existent power structures. The dramatic fall of the mighty Rashtrakuta empire can be noted as an example. In 967 A.D. Rashtrakutas under Krishna-III was the masters of all the territories to the South of the Narmada. Only six years later, with the overthrow of his nephew Karkka by their Chalukya feudatory Taila in 973 the empire of the Rashtrakutas fell and remained only in memory.

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100 words

i) Sharqis of Jaunpur  -  

Malik Sarwar, a noble of Feroz Shah Tughluq, took full advantage of the succession tussle among the sons of Feroz and rose to the high position of wazir under Sultan Muhammad Shah (1390-94). Malik Sarwar got the charge of the eastern districts along with the title of Sultan-us Sharq. During the invasion of Taimur, he declared the independence of Jaunpur. Mubarak Shah Sharqi (1399-1401)was the successor of Sarwar who is succeeded by Ibrahim Shah Sharqi (1401-40). He expanded the territories of the kingdom by taking Kanauj in 1406, Kalpi in 1414 and subduing Ganesh ruler of Bengal in 1414. The Delhi Sultan Muhammad Shah was forced to sue for peace when Ibrahim Shah attacked Delhi in 1437. Ibrahim's energetic zeal and his successes increased the prestige of Jaunpur and earned him the title Shiraz-i Hind. He was succeeded by Mahmud Sharqi (1440 54), Muhammad Sharqi (1457- 58) and Husain Sharqi (1458-1505), Bahlol Lodi, annexed Jaunpur and ended Sharqi era.

iii) Irrigation technology during the Sultanate period                      A.  Agriculture was generally dependent upon natural irrigation, that is, rains and floods. Ponds and tanks received this water which was used for irrigation. Water channels formed by inundation, too, served the same purpose. But the most important controlled source was the water of the wells which was drawn through different irrigation methods and devices. Delhi Sultans took interest in canal irrigation. The Delhi Sultans themselves got the canals cut for irrigation. Ghiyasuddin Tughluq (1320-25) is reported to be the first Sultan to dig canals. But f he cutting of canals in a much bigger way was undertaken by Feroz Tughluq (1351-88),. Feroz Tughluq cut two canals from the river Yamuna carrying them to Hissar. one from the Kali river in the Doab joining the Yamuna near

Delhi; one each from the Sutlej {nd the Ghaggar. Certainly, it was the biggest canal network in India till the 19th century. Canal irrigation helped greatly in the extension of cultivation in eastern Punjab. As a result of abundance water available, peasants in eastern Punjab raised two harvests (Kharif and rabi) where only one was possible earlier.

EHI - 3

7th Part

Q.  Account for some of the major stages of development in the Tughluq architecture. 

A.    A new architectural style came into vogue in the buildings of this period during Tughluq. Judging from the remains, only the first three rulers of this house appear to have been interested in the art of building. However, the architecture of this period can be divided into two main groups. To the first group belong the construction of Ghiyasuddin and Muhammad Tughluq, and the other to those of Feroz Taghluq. The general features of the Tughluq style of architecture are listed below which is unique and different from earlier times :

a) Stone rubble is the principal building material and the walls are in most cases plastered.

b)  The walls and bastions are invariably battered, the effect is most marked at the comers.

c) Use of a new shape of the arch- the four centered arch-necessitating its reinforcement with a supporting beam. This arch-beam combination is a hallmark of the Tughluq style. The pointed horse-shoe arch of the preceding style was abandoned because of its narrow compass and therefore the inability to span wider spaces.

d)  The emergence of a pointed dome with the clearly visible neck in contrast with the rather stifled dome of the preceding style. 

e)  Introduction of encaustic tiles as an element of decoration in the panels of the buildings.

f) Emergence, in the tombs of this period, an octagonal plan which came to be copied and perfected by the Mughals in the 16th-17th century.

g) An additional feature was the element of reduced ornament, confined mostly to inscribed borders and medallions in spandrels executed in plaster or stucco.

Q.  Calligraphy in the Delhi Sultanate.   

A.  Calligraphy was the most revered art in the Islamic world and was used as a decorative feature both on stone and on paper. In the hierarchy of craftsmen, a calligrapher was placed above the illuminator and painter. However, the calligraphy of the Quran became one of the foremost forms of book art, where copies of the Quran were produced on a majestic and expansive scale. The earliest known copy of the Quran is dated 1399. It was calligraphed at Gwalior, and has a variety of ornamental motifs, derived both from Iranian and Indian sources. Calligraphy is an important element of decorative art in the buildings of this period. The Quranic sayings are inscribed on buildings in an angular, sober and

monumental script, known as a kufi. They may be found in any part of the building -frames of the doors, ceilings, wall panels, niches, etc., and in a variety of Material stone, stucco, and painting.

Q.  Account for some of the major stages of development in the Tughluq architecture. 
A.  With their architecture, as revealed in Alai Darwaza (built 1305) at the Qutub complex, and the Jamat Khana Masjid (built 1325) at Nizamuddin, a marked change in style appears. In the evolution of Indo-Islamic architecture, this phase occupies a
key position as it exhibits a distinct influence of the Seljuq architectural traditions (a Turkish tribe ruling- over Central Asia and Asia Minor in 11-13 century) as also certain salient features of composition which were adopted in the succeeding styles. 
The characteristic features of this phase may be listed below :
a) Employment of true arch pointed horse-shoe in shape.
b) The emergence of the true dome with recessed arches under the squinch.
c) Use of red sandstone and.decorative marble reliefs as new building materials.

d) The appearance of lotus bud fringe on the underside of the arch - a Seljuq feature.

e) The emergence of new masonry-facing, consisting of a narrow course of headers - alternating with a much wider course of stretchers again a Seljuq feature. In addition, the decorative features characterized by calligraphy, geometry, and arabesque now became much bolder and profuse.

Q. Discuss the growth of regional literature in South India between the 13th to 16th centuries. 

A.  Tamil Literature - In 13th century Villiputturar produced the Tamil version of the Mahabharata which is called Bharatam and which became popular among the Tamil speaking people. He introduced the tradition of using Sanskrit words and literary expressions in Tamil poetry. His contemporary, Arunagirinatha composed Tiruppagal - a lyrical and devotional work in praise of god Murugan. The period is also known for elaborate commentaries written by Vaishnava scholars. Another great author, Kachiappa Sivachariar composed Kanda-Purana in praise of God Subramanya.

Telugu Literature - Literature in the Telugu language made great progress from the 13th century onwards. During the 13th and 14th centuries, Telugu translations and adaptations of Sanskrit works were produced. The most important Telugu poet in the first half of the 14th century was Errapragda. He popularized the Champu genre of literary writing and composed the Ramayana in this genre. He translated a part of the Mahabharata and another Vaishnava Sanskrit Work Harivamsa into Telugu. Srinatha (1365-1440) was another great Telugu writer who translated Sriharsha’s Naishadha Kavya into Telugu. His contemporary Potana was a great poet who translated the Bhagavata Purana into Telugu. Telugu literature achieved its highest position in tile sixteenth century during the reign of the Vijaynagar king, Krishnadeva Raya, who himself was a poet in both Sanskrit and Telugu & who wrote Amukta Malyada in Telugu. One important characteristic of the Telugu literature of this period was the increasing influence of Sanskrit on the Telugu language.

Kannada Literature - 14th-century Virasaiva(religious movement) poet, Bhima Kavi composed the Basava Purana. Hoysala rulers patronized many Kannada poets and writers. One of them, Rudra Bhatta wrote Jagannathavijaya in the chimpu genre. This work was an adaptation from the Sanskrit work Vishnu Purana. The period between the 14th and 16th centuries saw further growth of the Kannada literature under the patronage of the Vijaynagar kings and their feudatories. One of the greatest poets of this period was Kumara Vyasa who composed the Kannada version of Mahabharata in the middle of the 15th century.

Malayalam Literature - Malayalam is the youngest of the South Indian languages originated as a dialect of Tamil in the Malabar region. Gradually, it separated itself from Tamil and acquired independent status in the fourteenth century. The political isolation of the Malabar region from Tamilnadu & the introduction of new linguistic forms by foreigners contributed to the development of Malayalam as an independent language. The earliest literature was in an oral form consisting of songs and ballads. The earliest literary composition was the Rama Charitam, produced in the 14th century. From the sixteenth century onwards, Malayalam began to come under the dominant influence of Sanskrit and borrowed a great deal from the latter.

Q.  List major regional architectural styles developed after the decline of the Delhi Sultanate. 

A.   Eastern India - Two major strands of architectural style emerged in this region which is in the regional state of Bengal and Jaunpur. 

Bengal - Independent building style, distinct from the one prevalent at Delhi, developed at the beginning of the fourteenth century and lasted for a period of nearly 250 years. Bengal style spread in all parts of the region, but most of the prominent buildings were located within the boundary of the Malda district. The two principal cities Gaur and Pandua enjoyed the status of the capital seat of the regional ruling power and hold many buildings. The building art of Bengal is generally divided into the following three phases of which the first two are preliminary stages and the third its ultimate development into a specific style.

#  The first phase is from A.D. 1200-1340 (During most of this time Gaur was the capital seat. Only in later years it was shifted to Pandua).

#  The second extended from A.D. 1340 to 1430, and

#  The third phase from A.D.1442 to 1576 when the Mughals captured the province. During this phase, the capital was shifted back to Gaur. The data in the form of buildings for the first phase is scanty. Even where two or three structures survive they are in a badly ruined state. It is, nonetheless, evident that the buildings raised during this period were wholesale conversions of the existing Hindu structures. Similarly, the second phase is also deficient in data as it is represented by a solitary example of Adina Masjid at Pandua (built 1364). It introduces two new features in the architectural style.

#  the dropped arch, have span greater than its radii & centers at the import level &

#  the method of raising the roof 

       The third phase is the most remarkable as it depicts the emergence of a semi-indigenous style in tune with the peculiar environment and local conditions in Bengal. Now, bamboos were used extensively and for decoration terracotta tiles, was adopted.

Jaunpur -  The surviving architecture of Jaunpur consists exclusively of mosques. The Sharqi Architecture of Jaunpur carries a distinct impact of the Tughluq style, the battering effect of its bastions & minarets & the use of arch-and-beam combination in the openings being the two most prominent features. However, the most striking feature of the Jaunpur style is the design of the facade of the mosques. It is composed of lofty propylons with sloping sides raised in the center of the sanctuary screen ex. Atala Masjid (built-in 1408) and the Jami Masjid.

Western Style - The regional style of architecture is almost exclusively confined to Gujarat. Gujarat: This regional style flourished for a period of some two hundred and fifty - years beginning the early 14th century. The founders of Gujarat style of

The indo-Islamic architecture was, in fact, the governors of the Khalji Sultans of Delhi. There were three different phases of the Gujarat style :

#  The first phase lasting for the first half of the 14th'century marked by the demolition of the Hindu temples and their reconversion into Muslim buildings.

#  The second phase prevailing mostly during the first half of the 15th century and showing signs of maturity of a distinctive style.

#  Finally, the phase beginning in the latter half of the 15th century when Gujarat style emerges in its own magnificent form. 

         The Gujarat style of architecture is the most indigenous in character which is highly Influenced by Hindu or Jain temples. Almost all the mosques from the second and third phases are composed in this manner.

Central India - In Central India, the development of Indo-Islamic architecture remained confined within the Malwa region. Indo-Islamic architecture in Malwa is located essentially within the confines of two cities, Dhar and Mandu, though some buildings are available at Chanderi. The Sultans of Dhar and Mandu have left a rich architectural legacy, the main buildings being mosques, tombs, and palaces. The buildings at Dhar and Mandu derive many features from the Tughluq architecture such as the battered walls, the fringed arch, and the arch-beam combination. Its own distinctive features also emerged. Some of the more prominent features are - 

#  the most important is an innovative technique by which the two separate structural systems of the arch & the lintel have been combined in Malwa architecture.

#  Another notable feature of the Malwa buildings is the construction of steps of considerable length leading to their entrances. This became necessary due to the use of unusually high plinths on which most of the important buildings are raised.

#  The most striking impressions conveyed by Malwa style are not structural but the result of decorative properties. In these buildings, the element of color assumes a significant role. Two separate methods for obtaining this color effect were used The first is the use of various colored stones and marble, and the second is by means of encaustic tiles.

Deccan - The Indo-Islamic architecture that developed in the Deccan from 14th century onwards under the Bahmanis acquired a definitely regional character quite early in its growth. The Deccan style of architecture consisted basically of the fusion of :

a) the architectural system in vogue at Delhi under the Sultans, particularly the Tughluq form, and

b) the architecture of Persia.

         The architectural developments in the Deccan may be divided broadly into three phases corresponding on each occasion to a change in the seat of the government. The first phase begins in 1347 at the capital city of Gulbarga. The second phase begins in

1425 when the seat of power is transferred to the city of Bidar. And finally, with the change of capital again in 1512 to the city of Golconda, begins the third phase lasting till 1687, the year of Mughal conquest. 

Gulbarga - The first phase of architectural development in the Deccan started in 1347. For the most part, they followed the contemporary Tughluq architecture of the North. The Jami Masjid (1367) inside the Gulbarga fort was, however, different and unique but was never replicated again. 

Bidar: The Brahman capital was transferred to Bidar, a fortress town, in 1425 by ruler Ahmad Shah (1422-36). Soon the new capital saw a flurry of building activity as within its walls sprang up palaces with large audience halls & hammams, mosques, a madrasa, and royal tombs. The substantive style of architecture was now composed of forms very largely borrowed from Iran, but modified and adapted to suit local conditions Some important features of Bidar style were:-

#   Since color was the characteristic feature of Iranian architecture, palaces at Bidar show a brilliant scheme of the use of colored tiles and the mural painting. The glazed tiles which covered the exteriors were imported by sea from Iran.

#  There is a distinctive change in the shape of some of the domes in the buildings at Bidar. The drums of these domes are made tall so as to project the domes in full view.

         The fall of the Bahmani Sultanate towards the beginning of the 16th century brought the first phase of the Deccan style to a close.

Vijaynagar Empire -  It is one of the most important historical and architectural sites as it is the only Hinged city from the pre-modern period of which extensive remains still exist above ground. The Vijaynagar style of architecture was distributed throughout South India, but the finest and most characteristic group of buildings is to be seen in the city of Vijaynagar itself. This city had a great advantage as granite and dark green chlorite stony both used extensively as a building material is abundant nearby. The expanse of the city Vijaynagar at the height of its glory measured some 26 sq. km and it was enclosed with a stone wall. Besides palaces and temples, the city had extensive waterworks and many secular buildings such as elephant stables and the Lotus Mahal. The use of monolithic multiple pillars in the temple at Vijaynagar testifies this fact. The basic elements of Vijaynagar style are listed thus :

#  The use of pillars for architectural as well as decorative purpose is on an unprecedented scale.

#  Numerous compositions are used in raising the pillars, but the most striking and also the most frequent is one in which the shaft becomes a central core with which an animal is attached. 

#  Another distinguishing feature is the use of huge reverse-curve eaves at the Cornice giving the pavillions a dignified appearance.

#  As noted above, pillars form an integral part of Vijaynagar architecture, almost all of which have ornamental brackets as their capitals. Usually, this bracket is a pendant known as bodegai in local parlance. The occurrence of this pendant is an index reliable of the building in the Vijaynagar group. 

            The glory of the Vijaynagar empire ended in A.D. 1565 at the battle of Talikota when the combined army of the Sultans of the Deccan inflicted a crushing defeat on the Vijaynagar ruler Ram Raya.

Q.  Write a note on the development of music in the 13th to 15th centuries. 

A.  Sangeet Ratnakar is the earliest known treatise on music which was composed by Sharangdev sometime between 1210-47 at the court of the Yadav ruler of Devagiri. Besides being a treatise on music -vocal as well as instrument Sangeet Ratnakar also delves into the details of the contemporary dance forms. It describes as many as 264 ragas classified into major and minor categories. This text is the first systematic exposition of the various elements of music. 

          In the 15th century two interesting musical treatises from Gujarat. The first one is called Sangeet Sudhakar and is attributed to Haripal Dev, the ruler of Saurashtra. It is the herb for the first time that the Indian musical form is divided into the Hindustani and the Karnatak styles. The other text is a Persian work called

Ghunyat-ul Munya, meaning 'pleasure of desire'. Unfortunately, the manuscript copy of this text is incomplete with its first folio & the last four Sub-sections missing. Thus the name the author is lost forever. This text has been of great value in several respects. It is the earliest treatise and commentary in Persian, on music and some of the Sanskrit texts on music respectively. Besides that, Ghunyat extensively uses some such Sanskrit works on music which have become extinct now. 

       In the 15th century, a text called Raag Tarangini became popular composed of Lochan Kavi. It contains illustrations from both Jaidev (of Geet Govind) and Vidyapati. Raag Tarangini is important for having initiated an alternative system of the division of rags.  Music got an impetus under the Sharqi rulers of Jaunpur in the second half of the 15th century. A connoisseur and an expert in his own right, Sultan Hussain Sharqi (1458-99) promoted vocal music by introducing a variant form of rendering khayal the Kalawanti khayal. He is also credited with some new rag, such as Jaunpuri Todi, Sindhu Bhairavi, Sindura, and Rasuli Todi. In the Vijaynagar Empire, the most significant treatise on the South Indian style is the Swarmel Kala Nidhi written by Ramamatya which is considered as the most authentic treatise of its kind and is frequently referred to by the music lovers today.

Q.  Elaborate on the main characteristics of painting traditions in India during the Sultanate period. 

A.   Western Style Painting - The Western Indian style was fully formed by the end of the 14th century. Paper manuscripts begin to appear regularly from the middle of the 14th century. Some important points are - 

#  Painting in these manuscripts is in a single plane, contained within a sometimes brilliant but always brittle line. The figures have been drawn on a red or ultramarine background.

#  Paper is seen as a surface to be decorated with colors in patterns, yielding in the best examples a brilliant jewel-like surface. The number of pigments used has increased- costly pigments such as ultramarine, crimson, gold and silver are used in increasing quantities.

#  Architectural elements are reduced to essentials. The hieratic little figures, and sometimes animals as well as household furniture, are little more than pictograms occupying boxes in a geometrical composition.

#  Mannerisms include the extension of the further eye, the swelling torso, and a particularly tortuous arrangement of legs in seated figures. Men and women are often practically indistinguishable.

           A careful study of the illustrated manuscripts in the Western Indian style makes it evident that they were apparently mass-produced at the great Jain centers of Pattan and Ahmadabad and are only superficially rich. Much rarer and far more beautiful are manuscripts individually created by professional artists for discerning patrons. 

Provincial Development -

Calligraphy - 

1)  Jaunpur : The Jaunpur School of Calligraphy flourished in the latter part of the 15th and first part of the 16th century. The manuscripts of the Quran calligraphed under this school use :

#  a script is known as Bihari,

#  crimson color in the frames for the text rather heavily.

#  much bolder designs of arabesque and creeper, with more inventive medallions in their illuminative content

2) Ahmedabad: The Ahmedabad School owes its origin to Sultan Mahmad Begarha of Gujarat; it lasted for about half a century (c: 1425-75). The script used for writing the Quran in this school is known as suluth. It was a serpentine, static script, used mostly in the Middle East for writing chapter-headings and inscriptions.

The Deccan Painting -  A distinct style of painting in the Deccan emerges in the kingdoms of Ahmadnagar, Bijapur, and Golconda in the late 15th and early 16th centuries. The use of daring colors--purple and yellow, pink and green, brown and blue - the sophistication and artistry of their compositions, and the traditional Deccani costume. The Deccani style drew on many sources including the Irani tradition. Some of the distinguishing features :

#  The faces in this style are commonly painted in three-quarters.

#  The grounds are shown as sprigged, i.e. sprayed with flowers or similar motifs.

#  Another Deccani feature is the reduction of buildings to totally flat screen-like panels. 

#  A typically Irani influence in some paintings is the golden sky.

#  And suggestive of the Chinese influence in some paintings are pink and green flowering plants, lotus and chrysanthemum.

Q.  Bhakti movement in Maharashtra.   
A.  Like other Vaishnava bhakti movements, the Maharashtra bhakti tradition drew its basic inspiration from that of the Bhagavata Purana. In addition, it was also influenced by the Saiva nathpanthi who was quite popular in the "lower" classes of the Maharashtrian society during the 1Ith and 12th centuries and who
composed their verses in Marathi. Jnaneswar (1275-1296) was the pioneer bhakti saint of Maharashtra. He wrote an extensive commentary on the Bhagavad Gita popularly called Jnanesvari. This was one of the earliest works of Marathi literature and served as the foundation of the bhakti ideology in Maharashtra. He was the author of many hymns called abhangs. Namdev (1270-1350) belonged to tailor caste. He is considered to be the link between the Maharashtrian bhakti movement and North Indian monotheistic movement. His bhakti songs have also been included in the Adi Granth. In Maharashtra. Namdev is considered to be a part of the varkari tradition (Vaishnava devotional tradition), but in the North Indian monotheistic tradition he is remembered as a nirguna saint, Other prominent bhakti saints of Maharashtra were Eknath (1533-99) and Tukaram (1598- 1650).