EHI - 5

Fourth Part

Q  Write a note on the expansion of British rule into South India.               12

A  The expansion of the British in South India was basically the outcome of the hostilities between the English and the French East India Companies. South India was the main arena for French activities. Not only was Pondicherry their capital, but in the neighboring princely states like Hyderabad and Mysore, they wielded great influence. In order to make maximum

profits, it was necessary for a trading company to eliminate all competition and establish its monopoly. Hence it had become very essential for the British to eliminate the hold of the French from this region. With the outbreak of the war in Europe, the stage was set for the First Carnatic War (1740-1748) in India between two rivals. The first war didn’t yield any decisive outcome and it ended after the conclusion of hostilities in Europe between the two rivals.  

   Unlike the first Carnatic war, there was no European war to provide a pretext for the outbreak of hostilities between the English and the French in the second instance. Rivalry in India provided the context, but it became a life and death struggle for the survival of the English and French EIC in India. It was an attempt by both the trading firms to consolidate and extend their respective influence in South India. In this war, the British were the clear winners who diplomatically and militarily outpaced the French and established firmly in South India. 

          By 1756, with the outbreak of the Seven Years' War between the English and the French in Europe the stage was set for the final showdown in India. In this war, the British were in commanding position and after overpowering Bengal were ready to take on the French. In the decisive battle of the third Carnatic War which was fought at Wandiwash on 22 January 1760, the French were defeated and after losing most of the territories were confined to Jinje and Pondicherry. Finally, in May 1760, the English laid siege to Pondicherry. 

        In the aftermath of the third Carnatic War, the English reign Supreme over South India as all the European Rivals had been eliminated and the only task left was subjugating Indian rulers in South India. The major power being the Mysore and Marathas. By the second decade of the 19th Century, the British had secured their position firmly in South India as both the Marathas and Mysore states were defeated by the British.

Q  Write a note on the process of British expansion in North India.                 20

A  There were two major powers in North India these were Awadh and Punjab.

Awadh - The Company's fortunes improved dramatically when Company in collaboration with the influential Indian merchants & nobels, defeated the nawab of Bengal Siraj-ud-Daula in 1757 at Plassey. The massive land revenues generated from fertile agriculture areas were used by the British to enrich its servants and strengthen its army by recruiting more men in the army . The results were the defeat of combined forces of Mir Kasim, Shuja-ud-Daula (the nawab of Awadh), and the Mughal Emperor, Shah Alam II by the British. 

       Although Shuja-ud-Daula was restored the throne of Awadh, he was firmly bound to the Company by a treaty(Subsidiary alliance). It provided for mutual defence (paid for by the nawab), free trade agreement for the company in his territory, and payment of Rs.5,000,000 as war debts. The ramifications of this treaty proved enormous for the history of North India. The company through the resident stationed at the Awadh capital was able to encroach upon the powers of the rulers so much so that by the beginning of the 19th Century, many of the higher officials, courtiers and large landholders of the province repose their faith in the company and consider it as a real source of power. Even members of the Nawabi family relied on companies' intervention for securing the position of the Nawabi. 

        Besides slowly annexing territories from the Awadh rulers the Company was also successfully building an alternative base, a source of authority for itself inside Awadh. Through the right of providing extraterritorial protection, the successive Residents tried to build a substantial constituency for the Company which extended from bottom to the top. The sepoys from Awadh, enlisted in or retired from the Company's armies, represented the lowest rung of it. The Taluqdars who were displaced by the action of the Nawabs and who successfully appealed to the Company for the restoration of their lands formed the middle of the ladder. The friends and relatives of the deposed or unsuccessful members of the Nawabi family were the highest in order to whom the Company's extended protection.

       Thus by creating an alternative source of authority for itself in Awadh, the company undermined the legitimacy of the Awadh rulers. This way the Company kept on encroaching on the material and moral domains of the Awadh rulers so much so that the annexation of 1856 became a logical conclusion.

Punjab - After the death of Maharaja Ranjit Singh in June 1839, Punjab was in the grip of political instability and rapid changes were taking place in the government. Kharak Singh, Nav Nihal Singh, Chand Kaur, Sher Singh & finally Dalip Singh were brought to the throne in quick succession. Conspiracy & intrigues were widespread and the army played a major role in all these changes that took place in the government. Prolonged and bloody battles were generally fought to bring the claimant to the throne or to dislodge the incumbent. 

           The British soon found their opportunity due to the repeated changes in the government of Punjab. The corruption among the officials, general indiscipline in the army and the disenchantment of the mercantile class were other factors that favored the British. An alliance was formed with the high ranking officials in government and army by British which proved beneficial to the British in the first war between Company and Sikh state. Due to the treachery of high officials, the formidable Punjab army was defeated in a series of encounters and was forced to sign the humiliating treaty of Lahore in 1846. Under the treaty, the British annexed the Jalandhar Doab region. The Punjab army was reduced to 20,000 infantry and 12,000 cavalry and a strong British force were stationed at Lahore. The British Resident at Lahore was given extensive authority to intervene in all matters of the state department. The British stationed their troops in Punjab while the expenses were to be paid by the Lahore government. 

         All these, however, did not satisfy the British as their ultimate aim was direct rule over Punjab. Taking advantage of the revolt by the Diwan of Multan in 1848 against the Lahore Durbar, the British sensed the opportunity to annex Punjab. In the campaign of 1849, the Sikh forces were decisively defeated and Punjab was annexed. Thus the British swallowed the very kingdom they were supposed to protect.

Q  Briefly outline the main changes in the European economy during the 18th century. 12

A  During the 18th century the changes in agriculture and industry brought about by the use of technology were such that they revolutionized the European economy and the society in particular Britain. This period witnessed the transformation from a mercantile economy to an industrial economy in Europe. 

           Political stability, a growing demand for products and the society which has the will to industrialize brought England on the threshold of the Industrial revolution. The necessary combination of capital, entrepreneurship, and technology brought industrial revolution. Such was the pace of growth after the 1780s that it revolutionized production and laid the foundations of the modern society. The ability to exploit the opportunities and utilize new inventions for production helped in getting a competitive advantage both in the domestic and external market which was crucial for the economy. 

           By the eighteenth century, Britain had earned the reputation of being the shopkeeper of the world. In addition to cotton textiles, metallurgy especially copper and steel manufacture, glass & paper industries experienced tremendous growth. The invention of the steam engine and its application in modernizing the transport sector further boosted the European economy. 

         The Industrial Revolution brought about a series of changes in the organization of production. Based on the rapid usage of technology the factory system started replacing the putting-out system. In the putting out System the artisan owned his tools and produced finished goods at home for the merchant by taking advances. In the factory system, the labor was employed by the factory owner; the worker did not own tools and machines, he only received wages for rendering labour services. The Industrial Revolution meant a radical change in production as well as redistribution of Labour from agriculture to industry.

        Thus in the 18th century, along with the creation of a working-class, the capitalist class also emerged and matured. Capitalists came from the ranks of merchants, landlords and also better off artisans who invested capital in industries. They used wage Labor and technology to make profits in the market. The profits were re-invested and competitive advantage was sought by using better and efficient techniques of production. Thus the 18th century witnessed tremendous change in the European economy from a trading mercantile dependent economy to an industrial economy.

Q  Mercantilism                                                           6

A   In the 17th century the countries of Europe were under the influence of a set of economic ideas and practices known as mercantilism. These can be summarized as- 

1.  It was believed that the volume of world trade is more or less fixed. State policies should be framed in such a manner that the country should strive to get maximum share of this world trade.

2. Precious metals. i.e gold and silver denotes the wealth of the nation. If a nation did not possess a natural source of precious metal, it should get it through trade. 

3.  In order to accumulate precious metals, the government should frame a favorable balance of trade policy. It means the value of exports should always exceed the value of imports. In other words more gold and silver should come into the country than the amount going out.

4. To preserve and increase this balance, high tariffs should be imposed to reduce imports of manufactured goods. Lower tariffs to encourage the import of cheap raw Material and bounties on exports should be given.    

5. The state should take steps to promote exports, especially of manufactured goods by establishing state-run workshops and factories, by granting monopolies and regulating the guilds.

6.  Colonies should be used both as a market for exports and as sources of supply cheap raw material and if possible precious metals. If necessary, wars must be waged against rivals for the protection of the colonies.  

7.  It was believed that colonies should be feeders to the mother country. Manufacture of certain commodities was either forbidden or discouraged for fear of spoiling the market of the mother country and exhausting the supply of raw materials. All colonial trade should be a monopoly of the mother country.  

Q  Discuss the nature and pattern of European trade in Asia during the 17th century.  12

A   When European companies started trading with India in the seventeenth century their main problem was that they had few goods to offer in return for Indian commodities. For nearly three centuries the balance of trade was largely in favor of Asia and they had to struggle with the problem of financing an adverse balance of trade with Asia. Apart from wine and oil their ships brought little from Europe. Gold and silver brought into Europe from the mines of South America was used to finance trade with Asia and in particular India.

           The European companies were facing severe criticism at home for doing this and were under constant pressure to find other ways of paying for their trade-in Eastern goods. A partial solution to this problem was found by capturing the intra-Asian trade. The Europeans started making good profits by bringing Spice Islands cloves and Japanese copper to India and China, Indian cotton textiles to South East Asia and Persian carpets to India thereby paying for some of their imports from India. However, only in the later part of the eighteenth-century when the English started getting land revenues from Bengal and by exporting opium to China that a final solution to the problem of the deficit trade was found. 

            In the seventeenth century, the bulk of the profits of European companies came from the sale of commodities brought from Asia to the markets of Europe, Africa, the American continents and to the Middle East. A triangular trade had developed between Europe, the Americas and the West Coast of Africa. Trade with the East was an important part of it.

           Spices were very high on the list of commodities demanded by the Europeans. Among spices, it was pepper alone which dominated the trade in the sixteenth and early seventeenth century. However, towards the end of the seventeenth century, there was a change in the commodity structure of the trade. Cotton textiles, silk, and saltpeter became very important in trade in place of spices. Indian textiles were regularly demanded by the English and the Dutch companies from the second decade of the 17th century.

Europeans were using Indian textiles in the trade with other parts of Asia where it was demanded as a barter commodity. Indian textiles are famous for their range, variety, and quality. Saltpeter required for the manufacture of gunpowder and indigo were other commodities which was also in much demand by the European companies in the 17th century.

Q  Discuss the structure and pattern of trade of the European companies with India during the 17th 18th centuries       12

A  Above answer and then industrial revolution and India becoming a source of raw material and market for finished goods.  

Q  Why did the British try to expand their control beyond Indian borders? Explain with reference to China and Afghanistan.   20     

A   English interest in expansion outside India was influenced by two major factors:-

Markets and supplies:  The British wanted to find new markets for the goods procured in India. They also required goods in exchange for trade with China. Apart from these, the British wanted to procure material like saltpeter for its military in South and South-East Asia;

Strategic: There was the need- to safeguard the Indian empire and the trade routes to China and India. 

With China - By the 1770s, Bengal had been milked dry due to policies adopted by the British and its economy was in shambles. Consequently, the profits of the East India Company declined and the Company started reporting massive losses. Such losses were doubly troublesome because not only did they hurt the dividends of the powerful shareholders of the Company in England but also jeopardized the extremely lucrative trade with China. Chinese tea, silks, and nankeens sold at a high profit in Europe and the Company had the English monopoly over this trade. However, the Chinese at this time sold their goods only in exchange for silver; and the silver had been provided mostly by Bengal. 

While the Company was establishing itself in India it had a growing trade with China. As in India, so in China-the Company had a monopoly over trade. But from the Company’s point of view, there were two key problems faced by them in trade -

#  that the Chinese government-controlled it closely and they were restricted to the port city 

#  they only traded mostly in exchange of silver

    Due to depletion of the wealth of Bengal the company sought to pay for the China trade by-

#  replacing silver by opium grown in the Malwa region of Central India and

# by obtaining-high-priced spices from South-East Asia for sale in China and Europe. 

The latter compelled the Company to expand itself into South-East Asia.

Q  Monopoly trade                                                         6

A  The English East India Company was granted a monopoly to trade in the East by the government of England through a charter. It means the East India Company was legally entitled and has exclusive control of trade with India and other countries in the East. All other British traders and Companies were barred from trading with India and East. There were some other countries left like Portuguese, French, etc along with Indian traders who were working along with East India Company in the market. The EIC used diplomacy and warfare to sideline other countries from trading with India. After gaining political control over territories in India, they debarred Indian trading firms and merchants from dealing in markets. Thus the Monopoly of EIC was established. Thereafter it started harassing weavers and artisans who were bullied to supply the goods below the market price. Thus the artisans were reduced step by step to the position of bonded laborers by the denial of free access to the market. They were forced to supply their produce to the Company at low prices arbitrarily fixed by the Company. 

EHI - 5

Third Part

Block - 2

Q  Comment on the differences between the Orientalists and the Utilitarians.       20

A  Orientalists - They were the British administrators who were of the opinion that to administer India properly, a thorough knowledge of India and its past was needed. Orientalists like Warren Hastings wanted to establish institutions of learning which would first acquire the knowledge of the golden past of India and then convey it to those who could be administering India. He was not in favor of introducing English laws & English ways in India. His main idea was to rule India in their own way. He felt that the rapid growth of the British rule had started various prejudices. These, he felt, needed to be stopped. Secondly, he wanted to reconcile British rule with the Indian institutions. This required more intensive investigation into the 'manners and customs' of the country. It also required an in-depth analysis of the literature and laws of the Indians. It is for this purpose that Halhed, one of Hastings's lieutenants, drew up a list of religious and customary laws called the 'Gentoo Laws' which would help in facilitating the process of reconciliation. 

Another orientalist William Jones, an English Jurist helped in establishing an Asiatic society in 1784. This society was engaged in studying India from within close quarters of its social, religious, linguistic & political aspects. The Asiatic Society contributed in a major way by translating from Persian & Sanskrit works of Grammar, Puranas and the writings of Kalidasa. Secondly, the members of the Asiatic Society researched and published a large number of articles on Indian society and religion. 

In order to provide practical training & familiarizing with Indian administration, the Orientalists established the Fort William College at Calcutta in 1800. The Fort William College basically impressed upon its students to study the Indian language so that the future administrators are at ease while dealing with Indian subjects, their customs, sensitivities, etc. It would also help them in understanding society and India's past in a more concrete fashion. Moreover, studying Persian served the very practical needs of the British administrators. Most of the Indian states used Persian as the language for maintaining official records and running the day to day business. Thus the vision of learning about India's past glory and the practical needs of the British administration were neatly dovetailed(intermixed). 

It is because of Orientalist vision that the Indian Residents who were posted at the courts of various submissive Indian rulers, combined both the knowledge and usage of Persian with the cultural lifestyles of the court. 

 Utilitarians - The Utilitarians didn’t believe in the liberal route of education for the task of 'civilizing' and 'improving' India. The utilitarians didn’t share the ideas and visions of orientalists. The utilitarians had no regard for Indian past history or experience. They wanted to bring in change through reforms of law and landed property. They wanted to create conditions where the markets could flourish. 

The question of law as an instrument of change was proposed by them. They wanted judiciary or law to be used for changing Indian society and restricting practices like Sati and female infanticide. They believed that law could be an instrument of change and through the enactment of laws under their supervision, Indian society could be transformed into a modern society from that of superstitious society. Thereafter a series of laws and penal codes were enacted under the influence of Utilitarians.

 The utilitarians opposed any form of representative government in India at that time as well as in the near future. Utilitarianism in India despite being born in the tradition of liberalism could never accept a democratic government in India. One of the utilitarian James Mill consistently opposed any form of representative government in India then or in the future. Moreover, the impulse of changing the Indian society through the enactment of laws, landed property or education gradually declined under the utilitarians. The later British administrators were to emphasize that the British rule had always been governed by law. However, it was argued then for efficient administration force had to be used and there was no need to justify it by consideration of political change or reform. The utilitarian task of transforming India from an uncivilized society to a civilized nation was subsumed under the principle of an efficient and good government. The government was supported by the 'steel frame'of British administration. The utilitarian philosophy also influenced the views of Dalhousie who created all-India departments with single heads. Under the utilitarians there was a decline of the overall spirit of reform and the British administration was now dominated by the outlook of pragmatism and rationality.

Q  Analyse the importance of utilitarian ideas in bringing about change in India.   12

A  The Utilitarians didn’t believe in the liberal route to education for the task of 'civilizing' and 'improving' India, they had no regard for Indian past history or experience. They wanted to bring in reforms of law and landed property to create conditions where the market could flourish. The question of law as an instrument of change was proposed by them. They wanted judiciary or law to be the instrument of changing Indian practices like Sati and female infanticide. They believed that law could be an instrument of change and through the enactment of laws; Indian society could be transformed into a modern society from that of superstitious society. A series of laws and penal codes were enacted under the influence of Utilitarians. As a result of their efforts, a series of laws and penal codes were enacted to make India civilized and improved. 

The utilitarians opposed any form of representative government in India at that time as well as in the near future. Utilitarianism in India despite being born in the tradition of liberalism could never accept a democratic government in India. James Mill consistently opposed any form of representative government in India then or in future. However this impulse to link the, task of changing the Indian society to the tasks of law, landed property or education gradually declined under the utilitarians. The later British administrators of our period were to emphasize that the British rule had always been governed by law. However, it was argued then for efficient administration force had to be used and there was no need to justify it by consideration of political change or reform. The utilitarian task of transforming India then was subsumed under the principle of an efficient and good government held up by the 'steel frame'of British administration. The utilitarian philosophy also influenced the views of Dalhousie in creating all-India depart­ments with single heads. What we notice was the decline of the overall spirit of reform and the British administration was now dominated by the outlook of pragmatism and rationality.

Q   Evangelicalism                                                          6

A   In the initial part the British Orientalists focused on learning about the Indian past, society and wanted to administer it, in its own way without disturbing it, however, the Christian Missionaries resented this approach. The missionaries were of opinion that Indian society was in a degenerative state and only Christian values and Religion is the remedy. They wanted to get on with the task of reforming the current degeneration of the Indian society. The missionaries were hostile to Indian traditions, culture, religion etc. This hostility was the hallmark of evangelicalism, it was combined with the desire to 'civilize' India. The missionaries were supported by the merchant community who wanted to benefit from the enactment of laws to acquire property etc. in India as desired by missionaries. Under "free trade' the merchant community wanted to creating a market for British goods amongst the Indians. The British East India Company also supported the activities of missionaries. Missionary like Charles Grant saw a complementarity between the civilizing process and material prosperity. 

Q  Discuss the nature of Indian polity in mid 18th century. 20

A  Mughal decline - The Mughal decline was one of the predominant features of the 18th century. Aurangzeb's misguided policies had weakened the stable Mughal polity. Wars of succession and weak rulers plagued Delhi from 1707 to 1719. Muhammad Shah's rule from 1719 to 1748 was long enough for a revival of imperial fortunes but the complete incompetence of the emperor ruled out this possibility. Nadir Shah's invasion in 1739 & the massacre of Delhi seriously weakened an already feeble Mughal empire. Other factors including economic crisis contributed to the empire's decline. By 1761 the Mughal empire was an empire only in name, confined largely to the state of Delhi and by 1783 the Mughal emperor was a pensioner of the British. 

The emergence of Regional Polities - 

            Along with the decline of the Mughal empire, the second major theme of the 18th Century was the emergence of regional polities. Broadly there were three kinds of

states which came into prominence:- 

# the states which broke away from the Mughal empire,

# the new states set up by the rebels against the Mughal, and

# the independent states.

Successor States

Hyderabad, Bengal, and Awadh falls in the category of successor states where provincial governors appointed by the Mughals set up independent states. The breakaway from Delhi didn’t take place suddenly but occurred in stages - the revolt of individuals followed by that of the social groups, communities and finally regions. Zamindari revolts in the provinces against imperial demands triggered off the breakaway. Governors did not get support from the center and tried to secure the support of the local elites. However, links with the center were maintained and the Mughal tradition continued. A new political order emerged within the Mughal institutional framework. 

The New States

The second group of regional states were the 'new states' or 'insurgent states' set up by rebels against the Mughals. These were the Marathas, Sikhs, Jats, and Afghans. The first three states began as popular movements started by the peasantry. The leadership was not with the nobility but with 'new men', often from lower orders. The Maratha state were the most formidable among the regional states. Maratha power reached its zenith by 1761 when expansion was now no longer limited to areas where the Mughals had an uncertain hold. No part of India was spared from the depredations of Maratha conquest. Jats who were the agriculturist Caste inhabiting the Delhi-Agra belt rose up in revolt against Mughal domination and shook the stability of the core area of the Mughal empire. As Jat power grew and consolidated, Jat state was established at Bharatpur. Similarly, Sikhs took advantage of the imperial administration of Punjab and established their control once Abdali and his followers returned home. 

Independent Kingdoms

There was a third type of state which emerged neither because of a breakaway from or rebellion against Delhi. Mysore, the Rajput states and Kerala fall in this category. 

Mysore - The mid-18th century witnessed the emergence of Mysore as a powerful state in South India. Haidar Ali laid the foundations of Mysore's power, which were consolidated by his able son, Tipu Sultan.

Rajput - The Rajput rulers did not lag behind in consolidating their position by taking advantage of the disintegration of the Mughal empire. None were large enough to

contend with the Marathas or the British. Their method was slowly to reduce their ties with Delhi and function as independent states in practice.

Weaknesses of Regional Polities

These states were strong enough to destroy Mughal power but none was able to replace it at an all India level by providing stable polity. 

Rise and expansion of the British power in India:

The third and the most crucial feature of the 18th-century polity were the rise and expansion of the British power in India. The mid-18th century saw the transformation of the English East India Company from a trading enterprises to a political power. The beginning of the empire started in 1757 when the British defeated the Bengal Nawab at Plassey. The ground for the victory of 1757 was laid in South India where British military might and diplomatic strategy defeated the French . The company's need and desire for more revenue encouraged it to gain political power over territories of India and establish its  empire. The company needed money to maintain its trade and pay its troops . The company's interest in conquering territories was two-fold, establishment of monopoly of trade and control over land revenue. 

The regional powers were not able to take the place of the Mughals. Though some states were very prosperous, and some achieved considerable military success, however, none could achieve resources & power to maintain an all-India polity. Modernization attempts were limited. Backward regional states easily succumbed to the superior British system. 

Q  Discuss the British policy towards Afghanistan.                12

A  Through the 1830’s the British used Afghanistan as a buffer against Napoleonic France and Tsarist Russia. In 1836, Dost Muhammad, the then ruler of Afghanistan offered his friendship to the English in return for English help in recapturing the Peshawar valley which Ranjit Singh, the Sikh ruler of Punjab had taken away from the Afghans. As British refused, Dost Muhammad responded by showing signs of friendship towards Russia. This alarmed the British and planned to depose Dost by force. A Tripartite Treaty signed on 26 June 1838 between Shah Shuja an ex-ruler of Afghanistan, Ranjit Singh and the English. Following this treaty a force comprising the armies of the Company, Ranjit Singh and Shah Shuja was assembled to attack Kabul, depose, Dost Muhammad, & establish Shah Shuia on the throne. Dost Muhammad was defeated and Shah Shuja was made the ruler of Afghanistan. British troops, however, instead of withdrawing to India began to garrison Kabul, Jalalabad, Kandhar, and Ghazni. 

In the meanwhile, in September 1840, Dost Muhammad was able to get military help from the Wali of Kholoom. He attacked the English in September but failed. He was forced to surrender in November & was sent to Calcutta as a prisoner. In the spring of 1841, however, popular unrest against the English started. Open rebellion broke out at many points in September 1841. The English in Kabul town were killed and their cantonment besieged. The same happened at Ghazni, Jalalabad, and Kandhar; and the entire Gorkha battalion at Kohistan was done to death. In December finally, the English were forced to accept the humiliating condition of evacuating Afghanistan within three days. The retreating forces were in turn attacked on the snow-covered passes and substantially annihilated.

By May 1842, however, the English forces were able to regroup & re-establish control over Jalalabad and Kandhar. Then with the help of reinforcements from India Kabul was re-taken in September. The costs of this victory were, however, too high in terms of the cost in men and money. Henceforth the English decided to confine themselves within the North-West Frontier and not venture into Afghanistan militarily.

Q  British Policy Towards Burma                                              6

A  Burma was important for the British both for commercial and strategic reasons. Burma exported some costly items like tin, pepper, and ivory. More importantly, it was a major supplier of timber for the shipbuilding and repair industry based in Calcutta. Also, towards the end of the 18th century, the deltas of the Irrawady river became important suppliers of rice to the growing settlements in the South-East Asia to Bengal. In 1823-24, the Burmese military, pursuing rebels, entered and occupied Assam and Manipur and prepared to attack Chittagong. As these territories were claimed by the British it led to First Anglo-Burmese War (1824-26). In this war, Burma was defeated and besides losing control over Assam& Manipur, the Burmese king lost a large part of Burma and most of his coast . He was also forced to accept a British Resident at his capital and pay a huge indemnity. In 1852, the British decided to attack Burma on the pretext of restoring the dignity of the English resulting in the Second Anglo-Burmese War. The Burmese king lost most of his territory and finally, Burma was annexed in 1885 by the British. 

EHI - 5

Second Part 

Q  Write a note on the nature of regional polity specially in the context of Awadh.   12

A   The independent authority that emerged in the provinces in the 18th century worked with the collaborative support of different groups like the Zamindars, the merchants, etc. Merchants and money lenders who became politically important in the 18th century had an important role in the emergence of the regional political system. In the 18th century with the weakening of central authority and the collapse of the Mughal treasury, this commercial class provided the economic basis for the emergence of regional political system. They became the guarantor of money for the rulers & the nobles. The extent of penetration into the working of the administration by merchant class was fairly pronounced. The government borrowed substantial sums for its working from the commercial houses. The Agarwal bankers had complete command over the revenue matters in Benares. 

 In the case of Bengal, the house of Jagat Seths played an important role in the administration of the Bengal province. Thus the merchants and the money lenders had a share in political power in the regional polity in the eighteenth century. Parallel to the merchant class , Zamindars as a group also had a very significant role to play within the province. In the wake of the weakening imperial authority, the Zamindars consolidated their power at the local level. They began to tax markets and trade in their areas which was beyond their domain during the sunny days of the Mughal rule. The collection of revenues and the maintenance of law and order in the countryside became the concern of the Zamindars. The stability in the regional polity became dependant on the active support of the Zamindars. The Zamindars were usually supportive of the merchants and in many cases, Zamindars were also money lenders and had an investment in commerce. So their common interest tied them together. Thus the support of these two groups became essential for the ruler to maintain his authority. Another significant characteristic that is observed in the polity of Bengal and Awadh is the appointment of a large number of Hindus in the revenue administration. The manning of revenue administration by Hindu officials have been encouraged because there was less chance of resistance from the Hindus to the Nawab's authority.   

Q  Why did the French fail in the Carnatic wars? What was its effect on Indian polity?  12

A  There are several reasons for French failure in the Carnatic wars such as -

Firstly, there were the financial difficulties faced by the French Company which came in their way of making preparations to launch a fresh military offensive against the British. There were no funds to pay the troops. Already handicapped by this, the French general added to the problems of the troops by indulging in rude and haughty behavior towards them. He refused to listen to their advise and thus alienated them. Another major problem was the French had no permanent naval presence in India. On the other hand, the British had a strong naval fleet in India. What was more problematic was that, on the occasions when the French navy from Mauritius did come to the assistance of their Indian counterparts, it created fresh problems for the French Company in India. This is so because there was a lack of coordination and one up-man among the French Generals resulting in disagreements thus benefiting the British. 

One major factor that turned the tide in -Britain's favour was its recent access to the rich resources of Bengal. From this secure base they could send a constant supply of men and money to Madras and thus launch fresh military strikes against the French. Thus, Britain because of its strong navy in India; its increasing military strength and good leadership and the support they received from Government in England, and the larger resources from Bengal helped Britain to defeat French forces in Carnatic wars. 

        A major fallout of the events after the defeat of French forces in the Carnatic wars was, it exposed the weakness of the Indian regional powers. It showcased their inability to make naval intervention and also exposed the ineffectiveness of the large armies of regional power in comparison to small but disciplined European armies. In the aftermath of the third Carnatic War, the English reigned supreme over India. All their European Rivals had been eliminated and the task of subjugating Indian regional rulers started. In the east they already had a secure base at Bengal and now focused their energies towards South. Firstly, in South India Mysore was a major force to reckon with and so were the Marathas for the British. Battles against these two States became a major preoccupation with the East India company in the third and last quarters of the 18th century. By the second decade of the 19th century, the British had secured their position in South India very firmly. 

Q  How did the new state develop in Punjab? What was the nature of its polity?     12 

A  First part answer ahead Second part - 

The teachings of the Sikh Gurus laid the foundation for the Sikh polity. The movement, that had developed amongst the Sikhs to fight against the socio-economic and religious injustices in the medieval period, ultimately got transformed into a political movement during the course of the 18th century. So the nature of the Sikh polity was based on the moral ethos and the democratic traditions laid down by the Sikh Gurus.

 The reflection of this democratic tradition is found in the Sikh polity of the Misl period. It demonstrates its various features like the Gurmata, the Dal Khalsa, ruling in the name of the Khalsa, etc. The emergence of the Sikh monarchy in the 19th century in place of various independent chiefs brought further change in the nature of Sikh polity. During the 19th century, the autonomy of the individual Sardar of different principalities came to an end and a monarchy was established in the state of Punjab under Ranjit Singh. Ranjit Singh had full faith in the Sikh scriptures and the Sikh religion. But his personal faith never came his way of running the administration which was secular in its approach.

Q  Third Carnatic War                                                     6

A  The Third Carnatic war ( 1757- 1763)was a local version of the Seven Years war in Europe. The Third Carnatic War put an end to the French ambitions to create a colonial empire in India. The earlier two Carnatic wars were limited to Deccan but the third war spread in Bengal also. The British Forces were able to capture the French Settlements at Chandranagar in 1757. The decisive battle of the third Carnatic War was fought at Wandiwash on 22 January 1760. British army totally routed the French army under Lally. In the next three months, all the minor French possessions in the Carnatic had been effectively reduced by British forces. Thereafter, the French were left with no possessions in the Carnatic except Jinje and Pondicherry. Finally, in May 1760, the English laid siege to Pondicherry. After more than six months of encirclement, the French capital of Pondicherry unconditionally surrendered on 16 January 1761. Shortly thereafter Jinje and Mahe, the two French settlements on the Malabar coast also surrendered to the English leaving the French without even a toehold in India. British were now the dominant power in India.  

Q  Comment on the formation of regional polities in the 18th century with special reference to Mysore & Hyderabad.        12 

A  Along with the decline of the Mughal empire, the second major theme of the 18th Century was the emergence of regional polities. Broadly there were three kinds of states which came into prominence:

# the states which broke away from the Mughal empire,

# the new states set up by the rebels against the Mughal, and

# the independent states.

Nature of polity at Hyderabad

Hyderabad - Under Nizam-ul-mulk, the army was an important component of the polity that emerged in Hyderabad. The military commanders and their troops were tied to the political system through their individual employer, mainly the nobles. Inland revenue system, intermediaries played a significant role that have important consequences in the shaping of Hyderabad polity under the Nizams. The nobility in the Nizam's period did not have uniform criteria for career advancement. Personal relations with Nizam or military skills became very important. So to become powerful in Hyderabad, the mansab rank (as under Mughal system) did not prevent the rise of the noble. Many Zamindars or Jagirdars who could rally the smaller intermediaries behind them, could with a little military skill and diplomacy became powerful. Aiding in this process of grabbing wealth and power was a network of intermediate clients called the vakils. These vakils acted as agents between Nizam and nobles, nobles and nobles and Nizam and outside powers. Bankers, moneylenders and military commanders (usually mercenaries) played an important role in the political system of Hyderabad. They played a key role since they provided essential financial and military service. Some of the main community or caste groups amongst the financial groups were the Agarwal and Marwaris while Afghans and Arabs were prominent military groups. By threatening to withdraw support and services these individuals and groups could at their level play an important role in the balance of the power. The local chiefs under the Nizam continued to control their inherited land on the payment of tribute to the Nizam. Though they played the role of patrons like Nizams and his nobles, they were never fully integrated within the Hyderabad political system.

Mysore - Mysore in the 18th century emerged as a polity which was consolidated under military might of Haidar and Tipu. This system, however, was under constant pressure from their own inability to evolve durable solutions to the forces which were held in check due to military strength. Haidar Ali didn’t allow the local chiefs any claim to independence and if they resisted they were driven off their lands. By limiting the scope of these chiefs activities, Haidar further eroded their local base. Tipu Sultan, his son, went further in the subjugation of the poligars. After expelling them he rented out their lands to either private individuals or government officials. 

One of the important features of the Mysore administration under Haidar and Tipu was in building the base of their military-political authority by augmenting their financial resources for running the state. The land was kept under a system of survey and control. The state took measures to encourage tillers by providing adequate relief and protection. A strong system of state control was evolved where an amildar controlled the revenue administration and asufdar looked after the legalities of rent disputes. Intermediaries were removed and a direct link between the state and the peasantry was established. It helped to maximize revenue for the state. Merchants had been playing an important role in the Mysore economy. Tipu appointed asufs to train officials to run trade centers established by him for keeping trade in control.

Q   Discuss the differences in the state formation between Hyderabad and Mysore states during the 18th century.        12        A   Hyderabad, Bengal, and Awadh were the three cases where provincial governors under the Mughals set up independent states. The breakaway from Delhi didn’t take place suddenly rather it occurred in stages - the revolt of individuals was followed by that of the social groups, communities and finally the regions. The Zamindari revolts in the provinces against imperial demands triggered off the breakaway. Governors who were appointed by Mughals did not get support from the center and tried to secure the support of the local elites. Gradually the relationship of the central authority with the provincial administration was virtually reduced to getting tribute from the provincial governor. However, links with the centre were maintained and the Mughal tradition continued.

 Nizam Asif Jab was firstly appointed as a subadar (in charge of the province) by the Mughal emperor in 1713. But only after a military victory over his rival Mughal appointee in 1724 that he could take effective charge of the Deccan. After this period he stayed on in Deccan and went to the Mughal court only after leaving his appointee in charge. Taking advantage of the weakness at the center, he removed the Mughal officials in Hyderabad and installed his own men. Subsequently to stamp his authority he also assumed the right of making treaties, wars and granting mansabas and titles to his favorites. Now gradually the Mughal authority was reduced to a symbolic reading of Khutba etc. By the time of Nizam Ali Khan (1762-1803) Carnatic, Marathas and Mysore had all settled their territorial claims and a kind of autonomous stable political pattern emerged in Hyderabad.  

Mysore - The mid-18th century witnessed the emergence of Mysore as a significant power in South India. Haidar Ali laid the foundations of Mysore's power, which were consolidated by his able son, Tipu Sultan. Though Haidar Ali was only a junior officer, of common parentage, in the Mysore army, he gradually rose to be a brilliant commander. His most remarkable achievement was his realization that only a modern army could be the basis of a powerful state. Consequently, he inducted French experts to set up an arsenal and train the troops along western lines.

      Soon after Haider Ali was able to overthrow the real power behind the Mysore throne, the minister Nunjaraj in 1761. The boundaries of the Mysore state extended to include the rich coastal areas of Canara and Malabar. An expansionist at heart, Haidar naturally clashed with other powers in the region, the Marathas, Hyderabad and the new entrants in the game, the British. In 1769 he inflicted a heavy defeat on British forces very close to Madras. With his death in 1782, his son Tipu became Sultan and extended his father's policies further.

Q  Battle of Buxar                                                         6

A  The abuse of dastak (duty-free trade permit) by the company servants for their private trade was the immediate cause of the war of 1764. Mir Kasim was backed by the provincial nobility of Bihar, Orissa and the Nawab of Awadh and the Mughal emperor Shah Alam. The combined forces under Mir Kasim were defeated by the British and thus the independent rule of the Nawabs in Bengal came to an end. The deposition and execution of Mir Kasim was followed by the restoration of Mir Jafar, this time on much harsher terms. For all practical purposes, power was transferred to the British and which was formalized by the treaty of Allahabad, 12 August 1765. By the treaty, the Mughal emperor formally appointed the English East India Company his Diwan for the provinces of Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa. The company was entrusted with the financial administration of the three province's and in return, the emperor was guaranteed an annual tribute of Rs. 2,00,000. The Nawabs of Bengal retained the office of Nazim with formal responsibility for defense, law and order and the

Administration of justice. 

Q  Awadh under the British                                                  6

A  The company through the resident stationed at the Awadh capital encroached upon the powers of the rulers so much so that by the beginning of the 19th Century, many of the higher officials, courtiers and large landholders of the province repose their faith in the company and consider it as a real source of power. Even members of the Nawabi family relied on companies' intervention for securing the position of the Nawabi. The company on the other hand, used the resources of Awadh both the manpower and money in redrawing the political map of India. The Army recruited from Awadh and Bengal and supported by the money extracted for the people of the province helped the company in winning repeated victories over the Maratha and the Sikhs. It led the British to emerge as the Paramount power in India. It also helped the Company to keep Awadh in check by providing extraterritorial protection to the dissidents from the jurisdiction of the Awadh rulers thereby creating a constituency loyal to the Company.

EHI - 5

First Part 
Block - 1

Q  Discuss the salient features of the Maratha administration.                     20

A      The Maratha king was the sardeshmukh of the entire Deccan (Aurangabad, Berar, Bidar, Bijapur, Hyderabad, and Khandesh) and Karnataka. The Raja was largely dependent on his sardars for his finances. The basic contours of the Maratha State system was dominated by the Peshwas or chief ministers which further evolved during the time of Balaji Vishwanath. The powers of the office of the Peshwa rapidly increased during his tenure till it became the center of authority of the entire Maratha Empire. Originally the Peshwa was only a mukhya pradhan or prime minister and his post was not hereditary. But by the time of Baji Rao, Balaji Vishwanath's son, became Peshwa in 1720, the office became hereditary. 

Maratha dominion can be broadly divided into two parts non-regulation and regulation areas. In the non-regulated areas, zamindars, autonomous and semi-autonomous chiefs were left with the independent authority to control the areas under their command provided they continuously pay tribute to the king. The king's tribute demand from these areas was in proportion to their power of resistance, the weaker ones paying more than the stronger. In regulated areas, the direct administration was established. In these areas, the system of revenue assessment, management, and the collection was established.  

Such regulated areas were divided among vatandars . Each unit of about 10 to 200 villages was under a deshmukh-deshpande combination. Vatandars were co-sharers of the land produce. They had the right to collect dues from cultivators in lieu of their salaries, they also had the customary share in the government's revenue exempt land. The division of shares of a vatan did not imply partition of the land but of the proceeds. The right to sell any hereditary estate was recognized in principle. During periods of agrarian or financial or administrative crisis, the regulation could be relaxed and zamindars were allowed to acquire a temporary authority over the land under a system of revenue farming. Among the tenants, there were two types (a) resident cultivators with hereditary rights of occupancy (mirasdars) and (b) temporary cultivators (uparis). 

In most of the regulated territories, the administration continued with the standard assessment rates of the previous period in the 18th century. Under the Peshwas the tankha system was the permanent standard land revenue assessment method. This land revenue system was adopted for each village. In the late 1750s & 1760s, the kamal (or 'completion') settlement was followed. This settlement completed the tankha settlement by taking into consideration newly cultivated lands. The kamal system was based on measurement and classification of the qualities of land, and the king's share came to one-sixth of the produce. The internal distribution of the village assessment (tankha or kamal )was decided by the village headman or the village itself.

In addition to the regular land revenue, the government also imposed a number of extra taxes to be collected, which were intricately recorded by village and district officials. In the 1790s and 1810s when the Peshwa needed more revenue to pay for armies and obligations to the British and hence there was an expansion of revenue farming and an increase in the state's revenue demand. In Maharashtra, no more than a quarter of revenue was paid in cash. Most often, it was remitted from villages through the districts, to Poona through bills of exchange.

        There were also some tensions during this time period, between the centralizing forces of the state and the comparatively equalitarian local peasantry. Vatandar assemblies (qota) were often held to protect themselves from state demands. While such assemblies were frequently organized in the 17th century and showcase the popular resistance, however in the 18thcentury, the authority and powers of regional and village headmen were progressively bypassed through new administrative procedures.

The administrative systems in the northern saranjam states (Holkar, Sindia, Gwalior, and Bhonsle) were in principle copies of Peshwa. The only difference, however, was that they had Diwans and supervisory officials imposed on their administration from Poona. The bureaucracy in the Deccan and the north was dominated by different grades of Brahmins.   

Q   Did the Maratha administration revolve only around `Fitna'? Discuss.          12

A    After the Mughal retreat from the Deccan the Marathas expanded and evolved as a

loose association or confederacy of military leaders who were denoted as sardars.These Marathas, drew their strength from the ordinary peasant castes. Initially, the sardars held temporary assignments of land revenue. But in practice, they wanted to become hereditary rulers once they established themselves. Under these circumstances, the processes of fitnas became crucial and was central to social and political life in the Maratha state system. 

The system of fitna implies taking benefit of the existing political conflicts through a combination of coercion and conciliation, as opposed to pure military operations. Fitna then, is regarded as the political mechanism that was used for the expansion, consolidation & subsequent institutionalization of Maratha power. In ensures the crucial collaboration/acquiescence of the gentry required for the political arithmetic of fitna. The system of fitna was exploited for the conquest as well as gaining agricultural land.

       It was through fitna that the Marathas penetrated the expanding Mughal Empire in the late 17th century by aligning themselves with different Deccan Sultans against the Mughals. Therefore, Wink argues, rather than representing a revolt against the Mughal empire, Maratha sovereignty emerged as a result of the Mughal expansion. In form, the Maratha empire remained a zamindari based and the Marathas never really shed the status of zamindars. Maratha dominion can be broadly divided into what have been called non-regulation & regulation areas. In the non-regulated areas zamindars, autonomous and semi-autonomous chiefs were left with the independent authority to administer the areas under their command provided they continuously pay tribute to the king. The king's tribute demand from these areas was in proportion to their power of resistance, the weaker ones paying more than the stronger.

        The expansion of the Marathas had from an early date predominantly been the work of the Peshwas and their sardars. In the 1740s the Marathas conquered Malwa,

Gujarat, Bundelkhand and penetrated, as far as Attock in the north, Rajasthan, Doab, Awadh, Bihar, and Orissa. Andra Wink's study shows that all these conquests started as fitna (conquests on invitation).  

Q   Analyse the Maratha State system in the mid-18th century giving reference to administrative, economic and social structures.                                  20 

A   Administration -  The Maratha king was the sardeshmukh of the entire Deccan (Aurangabad, Berar, Bidar, Bijapur, Hyderabad, and Khandesh) and Karnataka. The Raja was largely dependent on his sardars for his finances. The basic contours of the Maratha State system were dominated by the Peshwas or chief ministers. Maratha dominion can be broadly divided into two parts non-regulation and regulation areas. In the former, zamindars, autonomous and semi-autonomous chiefs were left with internal administrative autonomy. The king's tribute demand from these areas was in proportion to their power of resistance, the weaker ones paying more than the stronger. In regulated areas or the area of direct administration, there was a system of revenue assessment, management & accountancy. 

Such regulated areas were divided among vatandars . Each unit of about 10 to 200 villages was under a deshmukh-deshpande combination. Vatandars were co-sharers of the land produce with rights like dues from cultivators as salary, customary share in the government's land-revenue exempt land. The division of shares of a vatan did not imply partition of the land but of the proceeds. 

         The administrative systems in the northern saranjam states (Holkar, Sindia, Gwalior, and Bhonsle) were in principle copies of Peshwa, except that they had Diwans and

supervisory officials imposed on their administration from Poona. The bureaucracy in the Deccan and the north was dominated by different grades of Brahmins.    

Economic - Manufacturing and cash crops for distant markets formed an important part of the economy in Maharashtra. By the 17th and 18th centuries, credit institutions were operating in town and countryside. They were engaged in financing and providing loans to the indebted nobility and peasants, as well as the general population in daily economic life. There was the import of copper and cowries in the 18th century western Deccan which indicates the vigorous, highly monetized local market centers. The local market transaction in western Deccan by villagers and the general population was carried out in money. Money was also paid for daily and monthly wages to agricultural labor, craft production, and household service. Large and small scale mints producing a variety of coins were found in small market towns, the residential houses of important lords as well as in major cities. There is a wide range of records indicating transactions in rural exchanges during the late 18th century. In Maharashtra, there is evidence of people taking loans in cash and kind who were engaged in landholding, peasantry, agricultural laborers, craftsmen, and soldiers. 

Society - Society was largely agrarian in Maharashtra. By the 18th century, the establishment of villages in the heartlands of the Maratha empire was complete. This implied the spread of population and agrarian settlement. However, the heartland around Poona was poorly irrigated and relatively sparsely populated because of the quality of land and lack of irrigation facilities. By the mid-18th century, given the state of its technology, this area has reached its limits of development. This lead to the persistent outward pressure in Maratha to settle down In stable agriculture areas like Tanjore in the south, Gujarat and the Ganges valley in the north. The collection of taxes and other obligations stimulated the need for increased agriculture production.

The Maratha rulers adopted two kinds of measures here. The first measure was the concessional assessment, remission of revenues and granting loans. These measures helped to bring new land under cultivation. The second measure was to encourage the initiative of the people to build agricultural facilities. For example, inam land or gift land was given to the headman of a village during Shivaji's period to repair or build new dams. State promotion of agriculture, revenue system, etc. had led to a considerable economic differentiation among the peasantry. By the late 18th century there was large scale exploitation of peasantry which further increased due to an increase in population, taxation, and prices of food grains. There is abundant evidence of a strengthening hold on the peasantry by non-cultivating privileged class (state ministers, deshmukhs, military officers with saranjam, financiers and traders), many of whom combined more than one function. In Maratha society, there were three ways of control over rural resources - tax, the gift of land and hereditary offices.

Q   How was a Sikh State established in Punjab at the beginning of the 19th century? 12

Q   Discuss the emergence of the Sikh State in the late 18th century.               12

A.   Zakariya Khan who was the governor of Lahore (1726-1745) had tried to strengthen his control over the province but failed in the process of establishing an independent political system. The dominant factors in the Punjab polity during this period which stopped him were:

# the struggle of the Sikhs to establish an independent political authority.

# the foreign invasions, first the Persian and then the Afghan.

# the Maratha incursion, and

# the rivalry within the provincial administration. 

          It was the Sikhs who took full advantage of the prevailing political instability in the region and ultimately established an autonomous state in Punjab. The process that started in the 18th century, for the establishment of the Sikh state, was finally culminated after the establishment of an autonomous state of Punjab by Ranjit Singh in the first half of the 19th century. The internal fighting of the Sikh autonomous chiefs and the Afghan invasions under Zaman Shah in 1795,1796 and 1798 helped Ranjit Singh in consolidating his power in Punjab. Firstly, Ranjit Singh was able to curb the power of the independent Sikh principalities(12) and brought them under a single political authority. 

        After establishing his complete control over the affairs at home, Ranjit Singh launched his expeditions against the various chiefs of the Sikh confederacies. Firstly the

Ramgarhias were defeated and their main city Miani was seized. After reducing the powerful Ramgarhias to abject submission, Ranjit Singh turned his attention towards Lahore. Taking advantage of the turmoil, he in alliance with Sahib Singh of Gujarat and Milkha Singh of Pindiwala, attacked Shahanchi Khan and occupied Lahore in 1799. After Lahore Ranjit Singh annexed Amritsar from the Bhangis along with all their other territories. Master of Lahore and Amritsar, Ranjit Singh, laid the foundation of a sovereign Sikh monarchy in Punjab, with himself as to its undisputed monarch. 

       With a view to consolidate his position further Ranjit Singh continued his march towards other principalities. He subdued Jammu, seized Mirowal, Narowal, Sialkot,

Dilawargarh and Wazirabad. Thereafter, he humbled the Kangra chief Sansar Chand and the Pathan chief Nizam-ud-din of Kasur. The Muslim principalities of Kabul monarchy, like Jhang and Sahiwal submitted readily and the Multan governor Muzaffar Khan greeted Ranjit Singh with huge presents.

       Kashmir was conquered in 1819 and by 1820-Ranjit Singh was acknowledged as the ruler of the whole of Punjab, from the Sutlej to the Indus, with the territories of Kashmir and the hill tract to the borders of Tibet. The Trans-Indus regions of Dera Ismail, Dera Ghazi Khan, Khairabad and finally Peshawar (1834) were all subjected to the Sikh monarchy. 

Q  How did Bengal & Awadh emerge as autonomous states in the mid 18th century?  20 

A   Bengal towards autonomy - The basis for an autonomous state in Bengal was first laid down by Murshid Kuli Khan who was firstly appointed as Diwan to reorganize the revenue administration of Bengal. His success as an efficient administrator & the state of uncertainty in imperial administration following the death of Aurangzeb helped him to become the Subadar of Bengal. Although Murshid Kuli did not defy the imperial authority of the Mughals yet it was his administration which showed a clear indication of the establishment of a dynastic rule in Bengal. He was the last governor of Bengal directly appointed by the emperor. Murshid Kuli abolished the system of separate offices of the Nazim and the Diwan and combined both the offices. By combining these two posts wanted to strengthen the power of the governor. This was done without taking permission and was a clear indication of the creation of an independent authority in the province. Murshid Kuli set the tradition of a dynastic rule in Bengal. It became an established fact in the province that after his death the Nawabship of Bengal would pass into the hands of his family. They continued to seek imperial confirmation but the selection of Nawab no longer remained in the hands of the emperor. 

       Initially, Murshid Kuli's main concern was to step up revenue collection in Bengal. In order to do this Murshid Kuli entered into a series of new relations with local power groups within the province. This actually laid the basis for a larger framework within which the autonomous Suba would function in the 1730's and 1740's. The measures that he took were:

# Elimination of small intermediary Zamindars,

# Expelling rebellious Zamindars and Jagirdars into the frontier provinces of Orissa,

# Enlarging the scope and extent of the KHALISA lands,

# Encouraging big Zamindars who assumed the responsibilities of revenue collection and payment.

The new power structure that had thus emerged in Bengal was very different from the Mughal provincial model & coincided with Delhi's declining hold over the province. Sarfaraz, nominated by Murshid Kuli as his successor, was deposed by his father Shujauddin Khan. Alivardi Khan killed Sarfaraz Khan, the legitimate successor to Shujauddin, and seized power. Alivardi's regime added a new dimension to the relations between the Mughal authority and the Bengal government. 

      His reign showed a virtual break with the Mughals and marked the commencement of the process of autonomy for the Bengal Suba. The major appointments in the provincial administration were made by Alivardi himself without any reference to the Mughal emperor. Men of Alivardis own choice were appointed as Deputy Nawabs at Patna, Cuttack, and Dhaka. By the 1740's an administrative system developed in Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa steadily reduced ties with the imperial court in Delhi. Even though Alivardi Khan did not formally defy the imperial authority, but for all practical purposes there emerged an independent state in eastern India during this period. Two important ways of showing imperial control over province-payment of an annual tribute to the emperor and appointment of higher provincial officials by the emperor were not visible during Alivardi's regime.

Awadh towards autonomy - After being prevented time and again from playing a larger role in the Mughal imperial politics Sadat Khan concentrated his energies in consolidating his authority in Awadh. Saadat Khan devoted his energies to make Awadh an independent center of authority. Prevailing weaknesses in the imperial administration following the death of Aurangzeb helped him in fulfilling his ambition. Immediately after taking control of Awadh Saadat Khan faced strong resistance from numerous rebellious chiefs and rajas in Awadh. In order to consolidate his position the measures he took were:

# Suppression of rebellious Imal Zamindars.and chieftains,

# Curtailing the authority of the Madad-i-mash grantees,

# Systematising revenue collection, and also

# Negotiation with some local Zamindars. 

 Saadat Khan left a legacy of the semi-autonomous regional political system to his successor

Safdar Jang. Under Safdar Jung, the internal organization and working of the administration was no longer dependent on imperial dictates. Moreover, he did not consider it obligatory to send regular tributes to Delhi. Between 1739 and 1764 Awadh attained higher autonomy. The outward allegiance to the Emperor was still maintained, for example,

# Emperor's formal confirmation was taken for the appointment in the high offices,

# Revenues were sent to the imperial treasury,

# Orders, Titles, etc. were given in the name of the Mughal Emperor, etc.

However, Safdar Jang tried his best to strengthen the basis of autonomous political system in Awadh. Safdar Jang's successor Shuja-ud-daula achieved greater success in consolidating the expanding frontiers of the province and in adjusting the relations of his independent Suba with the Mughal empire. Like his predecessors, Shuja-ud-daula also did not completely cut off the ties with the Mughal emperor. He also took the confirmation from the emperor for this throne. However, he successfully outmaneuvered the emperor's attempt to extend the imperial control over north India. Shuja-ud-daula was able to re-establish the dominance of Awadh over the imperial court and got the appointment of Wazir. Thus he successfully maintained the autonomous political system that developed in Awadh in the first half of the 18th century.