EHI - 5

6th Part

Q  Write a note on the de-industrialisation in India.           20

A   De-industrialization refers to the process of a continued and marked industrial decline. The proportion of the national income generated by industries and the percentage of population dependent on it are used as measures to determine industrial growth or decline. An increase in these data suggests industrialization while a decrease indicates industrial decline or de-industrialization. The Indian Nationalists used the data on the destruction of Indian craft industries under early British rule to substantiate their point that de-industrialization took place under the British rule. 

Industries before British rule - 

         In India, Cotton textiles were produced virtually all over the country and were one of the important items for export. Dyestuffs (predominantly indigo) and sugar were the other important commercial industrial products. The other significant agro-based industries included oils, tobacco, opium, and alcoholic beverages. Although the mining industry was not fully developed yet India was self-sufficient in iron. Shipbuilding was another important and developing industry.

The Nature of Early Trade with Europe -

Early European trade with India was heavily balanced in India's favor. The seventeenth-century witnessed the Indian cotton textiles replacing pepper and other spices to become the most important item exported to the west. European trade with India up to the first decade of the nineteenth century was based upon the price differential between Asia and the rest of the world. That is European merchants bought goods at a low price in India and sold them for a much higher price in the European, African and New World markets. The profits were based on the difference between the purchase price and the selling price. Since there was no demand for British or European exports in India the purchases of Indian goods had to be financed in gold and silver. 

Monopoly

      Gradually this situation started changing once British EIC eliminated all the other rival companies. Now the Indian merchants and traders were also barred from dealing in certain communities and thus the monopoly of the company was established. Thereafter it started harassing weavers and artisans who were bullied to supply the goods below the market price. Thus the artisans were reduced step by step to the position of bonded labourers by the denial of free access to the market. They were forced to supply their produce to the Company at low prices arbitrarily fixed by the Company. 

Impact 

      The East India Company's objective was to buy the maximum quantity of Indian manufactured goods at the cheapest possible price so that substantial profits can be made by selling these goods in Britain and other foreign countries. The reckless and anarchic methods to increase their purchases while forcing down the price had an adverse impact on the traditional Indian export industry, especially the cotton textile industries.

Process of De-industrialization 

There were two ways by which Indian industries were severely impacted by British policies - 

#  Firstly the Company depressed the purchase price of cotton manufactured goods in India thereby virtually reducing the weavers to the status of bonded labourers. They were forced to take advances from the Company and sell their products below market prices. This severely affected the textile industry as well as the economy as a whole. Forcible reduction of purchase prices in India was resorted to by the East India Company to increase the difference between its buying and selling price and consequently increase its trading profits.

#   Apart from this exploitation of the Indian industries by the Company, during this period, British textile manufacturers at home launched an agitation to force the British Government to impose restrictive import tariffs and bans on the import of fine Indian textiles. Thus the import of Indian silks products and other goods were prohibited into Britain. The duty for home consumption of Indian goods was very heavy. The import restrictions on Indian textiles in England further weakens this industry. As a result, the income of weavers and spinners were drastically reduced, thereby ruling out any possibility of capital investment and technological upgradation in this traditional industrial sector. 

       The Company's exploitative policies and the import restrictions on Indian manufactured goods into Britain led to the decline of industries in India. 

      While India's traditional manufacturing sector was being steadily weekend under the Company, in the same period Britain was undergoing the Industrial Revolution. Britain rapidly expanding its industries by adopting new technology as well as the organization of production. The growing British textile industry had all the advantage which were denied to its Indian counterpart. It had the advantages of economies of scale and finally, it was carefully protected in its formative years from foreign competition.

Q  Write a note on the economic impact of the British rule.   12

Q  Critically examine the economic impact of the British rule on India.             20

A  The economic impact of the British rule on India was devastating, some of its impacts were - 

SUBORDINATION OF 'NATIVE' CAPITAL 

The early European traders required the help of the Indian 'native' traders for business. In the middle of the 18th century, there were flourishing native business communities in many parts of India that were engaged in various kinds of commercial activities. They were needed for the procurement of goods for export. But, as the English East India Company began to spread in India, some of these lines of the business began to close for Indian business communities. Due to political hegemony and a dominant position as the chief buyer of export goods, the local trader's position was reduced to that of dependent agents and, in some branches of trade, to the status of servants of the English. 

The decline of export industries in the early half of the 19th century further restricted the opportunities for Indian businessmen. In the new lines that were opening up (e.g. jute and opium), a role subordinate to the English business houses was assigned to Indian businessmen. Petty money lending, internal trade in agricultural and artisanal products, the sale of imported manufactured goods - these were the areas of activity of Indian businessmen in Bengal in the first half of the 19th century. 

Monopoly and ruining of Artisans - 

            Up to the middle of the 18th century, the weavers appear to have enjoyed Independence and freedom to sell their products to the English, the French or the Dutch or to Indian merchants. After the elimination of the French and the Dutch from the competition by military means, the British enjoyed monopoly of trade. 

            Factors of the company started harassing weavers and artisans who were bullied to supply the goods below the market price. Thus the artisans were reduced step by step to the position of bonded labourers by the denial of free access to the market. They were forced to supply their produce to the Company at low prices arbitrarily fixed by the Company. 

           

 The decline of the rural economy - 

           Land revenue system followed by the British destroyed the rural economy as the land rents were kept at the highest thus squeezing the maximum out of agriculture produce. With the onset of the industrial revolution in Britain commercialization of agriculture was stressed upon. In the ryoti system, the peasants was forced to cultivate and supply indigo at a low price by the English indigo planters. To a lesser degree, opium was also produced under the threat of coercion. The forced cultivation of commercial crops for export in place of food grains was one of the major factors for famine during this time period. 

De-industrialization - already discussed 

Q  What were the causes of famine in British-India?              12

A  Some of the causes of famine were- 

#  With the onset of the industrial revolution in Britain commercialization of agriculture was stressed upon. In the ryoti system, the peasant was forced to mark a part of their land by the English indigo planters for growing commercial crops while only a small portion was assigned to grow food grains for his family. To a lesser degree, opium was also produced under the threat of coercion. The forced cultivation of commercial crops for export in place of food grains was one of the major factors for famine during this time period. From the middle of the 18th century, a number of major famines occurred in India because of it.

#  In the 18th and early 19th centuries an important factor for the famine was the devastation caused by frequent warfare between the British and various regional powers. Warfare leads to loot and plunders in rural areas causing famine. 

#  In the part of the country which was ruled by the British there was a tendency in the early days of British administration, to push up land revenue demand to the highest level. Moreover, the British collected the revenue with greater rigour in comparison to the pre-British days. They also refused to reduce revenue as a concession to farmers in a bad season. This inflexibility of revenue policy was certainly a major cause of famine in Bengal in 1770, apart from the failure of the seasonal rains. Due to higher revenues even in mean seasons, farmers give up their land and migrate to neighboring areas thus leading to less production of food-grains. 

#  The activities of the English traders and their agents have also contributed to the intensity of famines in some cases. For ex. speculation in grain trade by the Company's servants in 1770 in Bengal was one of the reasons for famine.

#  The neglect shown by the British administration to maintain or expand the pre-British irrigation works in the territories that come under their rule led to the decline of agriculture. As the only focus of the government was to increase the revenue and extract it, the canals and other irrigation works were neglected leading to droughts during lean years.

Q  Drain of wealth                                                       6

A  Drain of wealth' means the unilateral (one-sided) transfer of funds. It was the portion of India's wealth and economy that was not available to Indians. After attaining complete control over Bengal, East India Company started collecting money in the form of taxes. However, the Company used the money collected to invest in its business (for purchasing Indian goods). As a result, the company was getting Indian goods for sale in Europe for nothing. The company was collecting a tribute from its territories in India in the form of goods. It can be called a 'political tribute' - a 'tribute' because for this India obtained nothing in return and thus it was not normal trade. It was 'political' because it was the Company's political power that enabled it to collect revenue to invest in its business. This system operated in full swing from 1765 till 181 3 when the Company's monopoly was abolished. The money transfer also included earnings of Englishmen from plunder and loot during wars, bribery obtained from regional principalities, and fraudulent dealings with Indian business partners.

Q  Subsidiary Alliance                                                     6

A  Subsidiary Alliance is a system of ruling a subjugated nation by British. The main principles of a subsidiary alliance were:

1. An Indian ruler entering into a subsidiary alliance with the British had to accept British forces in his territory and also agreed to pay for their maintenance.

2. The ruler would accept a British people in his state, such a ruler would not form an alliance with any other power, nor would he declare war against any power without the permission of the British.

3. The ruler would not employ any Europeans other than the British, and if he were already doing so, he would dismiss them.

4. In case of a conflict with any other state, the British would decide what to do, and he would accept their solution.

5. The ruler would acknowledge the East India Company as the power in India.

6. In return for the ruler accepting its conditions, the Company would undertake the protection of the state from external dangers and internal disorders.

7. If the Indian rulers failed to make the payments required by the alliance, then part of their territory was to be taken away as a penalty.

8. Under this doctrine, Indian rulers under British protection surrendered the control of their foreign affairs to the British. Most disbanded their native armies, instead, they started maintaining British troops in their states to protect them from attack. As British power grew, in most parts of India this became increasingly unlikely. 

9. The system also allowed the British to maintain a large army at the expenses of the local ruler. Due to this system the company was able to maintain a large army without much financial burden.

Q  How did the industrial revolution in England affect India? Explain.               12

A  Before the Industrial revolution the European trade with India was heavily balanced in India's favor. The seventeenth century saw Indian cotton textiles rapidly displacing pepper and other spices to become the most important Asian, import into the west. European trade with India up to the early years of the nineteenth century was based upon the price differential between Asia and the rest of the world. That is European merchants bought goods at a low price in India and sold them for a much higher price in the European, African and New World markets. The profits were based on the difference between the purchase price and the selling price. Since there was no demand for British or European exports in India the purchases of Indian goods had to be financed by bullion payments. India had developed agro-based industries including cotton textiles, Indigo, oils, tobacco, opium, and alcoholic beverages. 

      But after the Industrial Revolution took place in Britain, British textile manufacturers at home had begun to force the British Government to impose restrictive import tariffs and bans on the import of fine Indian textiles. The British manufacturing interests had successfully prohibited the import of Indian silks and other goods into Britain. The duty for home consumption of Indian goods was very heavy. The import restrictions on Indian textiles in England further weakens this industry. The income of weavers and spinners were drastically reduced, thereby restricting any possibility of capital accumulation and technological innovations in this traditional industrial sector.

      The Company's own shortsighted exploitation and the free trader inspired sanctions against Indian manufactured imports into Britain resulted in a progressive decline in the share of Indian manufactured goods. 

      While India's traditional manufacturing sector was being steadily weekend under the Company, in the same period Britain had begun its Industrial Revolution and was rapidly expanding its industries by revolutionizing its technology as well as an organization along with principles of capitalist production. The growing British textile industry had all the advantage which were dented to its Indian counterpart. The British industry had a rapidly developing technological base, it had the advantages of economies of scale and finally, it was carefully protected in its formative years from foreign competition. 

      Thus, the Industrial revolution had a cascading impact on the growth and development of industries in India.

EHI - 5

Block 4
5th Part

Q  Compare and contrast the Ryotwari and Mahalwari revenue settlements.         20

Q  Discuss important features of the Ryotwari settlement introduced by the British in India.  20

Q  Mahalwari settlement                                                  6

A  Ryotwari Settlement - 

The emergence of Ryotwari -  Munro, and Read were sent to administer a newly conquered region of Madras in 1792. Instead of collecting from the zamindars, they began to collect directly from the villages, fixing the amount that each village had to pay. After this, they proceeded to assess each cultivator or ryot separately - and thus evolved a system that came to be known as the 'Ryotwari' system. This early ryotwari system was based on field assessment methods. This means that the tax payable on each field was fixed by a government officer, and then the cultivator had the choice of cultivating that field and paying that amount, or not cultivating it. If no cultivator is interested in cultivating any particular piece of land then it would lie fallow.

Land assessment under Ryotwari

The govt official has to fix the tax on thousands of fields in a sub-division or district and to fix it in such a way that the burden on each such field is approximately equal. If the burden is not equally distributed, then the cultivators will not occupy the heavily assessed fields and cultivate only those with a light assessment. 

Now, in fixing the land revenue of a field, the revenue officer had to consider two things: o-n e was the quality of the soil - whether it was rocky or rich, irrigated or dry, etc.; the other was an area of the field. Thus one acre of first-class rice land should pay the same amount whether it was located in this village or that one.

The Adoption of Ryotwari in Madras

Since the Madras government was in dire need of funds, it adopted the ryotwari system. It resulted in larger revenue to the state than any other system could have produced. This was because there were no zamindars or other intermediaries who were co-sharers of the agricultural surplus. The government squeezed maximum from the cultivator went directly to the State.

Ryotwari Theory and Practice

In practice, the estimates done by officials were largely guesswork. The amounts demanded were so high that they could be collected with great difficulty, & sometimes could not be collected at all. The tax came to be fixed on an arbitrary basis, usually by looking at what he had paid in earlier years. This was known as a 'put cut' assessment.

Again, in theory, the ryotwari system allowed the ryot to give up any piece of land that he didn’t want to cultivate. But it soon became clear that if this was freely permitted the tax revenue of the State would fall substantially. So government officers began to compel the cultivators to hold on to (and of course, pay for) land that they did not really want to cultivate. The use of beating and torture was widespread to enforce payment. 

Effects of the Ryotwari System in Madras

There is hardly any doubt that the implementation of this system was extremely harmful to the rural economy. The peasants were impoverished and lacked the resources to cultivate new lands. Apart from this negative effect upon the rural economy, the heavy burden of taxation devastated the land market. Land in most districts of Madras had no value in the first half of the 19th century. No one would buy it, because buying it would mean that the new owner would have to pay the exorbitant land revenue. After paying for taxes, he would have no income from the land, and obviously, in such circumstances, no one would purchase land. 

Social Effects of the Ryotwari System

The social effects of the ryotwari settlements were less dramatic. In many areas, the actual cultivating peasants were recorded as the occupants or 'ryots' and secured the title to their holdings. However, the tax was so heavy that many peasants would have gladly abandoned at least some of their land, and had to be prevented from doing so. It was also possible for non-cultivating landlords to have their names entered as the occupants (or owners) of particular holdings, while the actual cultivation was carried on by their tenants, servants or even bonded laborers. This was particularly the case in irrigated districts like Thanjavur (in Tamil Nadu) where many of the 'ryots' held thousands of acres of land. There was no limit to the amount of land that a ryot could hold. This led to a great difference in wealth and status between one ryot and another. However, money-lenders and other non-cultivators were not much interested in acquiring lands because of the heavy taxes that came with them.

Mahalwari Settlement 

             In the Mahalwari system land revenues were collected from the village directly through its pradhan or muqaddam (headman). In the revenue records, the word used for a fiscal unit was a 'mahal', and the village-wise assessment, therefore, came to be called a mahalwari settlement. Revenue was not fixed, rather revised periodically in the system. The responsibility of collecting the revenue and paying it to the government was given to the village headman. It was however quite possible for one person to hold a number of villages so that many big zamindars continued to exist. Furthermore, as in Bengal, the confusion and coercion that accompanied the collection of the very heavy land tax created fine opportunities for the local officials, and large areas of land were illegally acquired by them in the early years. 

Mahalwari Theory and Practice

In theory, the revenues were to be collected after the survey by Government officials. It should be done after recording all the rights of cultivators, zamindars, and others, and also fixing the amount to be paid from every piece of land. In practice it was never followed, the estimates done by officials were largely guesswork. The guesses were always on the high side, increasing the amounts to be paid to the State.

Effects of the Mahalwari Settlement

        One of the early effects was that the areas under the control of the big taluqdars was reduced. The British officers made direct settlements with the village zamindars as far as possible and even supported them in the law courts when the taluqdars brought suits against them.

         As a result of it, large areas of land began to pass into the hands of money-lenders and merchants who ousted the old cultivators or reduced them to the position of tenants at will. This occurred frequently in the most commercialized districts, where the land revenue demand had been pushed to the highest level. Moreover, in these areas the landholders suffered immensely because of the business collapse and export depression after 1833. By the 1840s it became common that no buyers could be found to purchase land to settle arrears of land revenue. As in the Madras Presidency, the tax in these cases was so high that the buyer could not expect to make any profit from the purchase.

     Overall, therefore, the mahalwari settlement brought impoverishment and widespread poverty to the cultivating communities of North India in the 1830s ad 1840s. As a result, the resentment was expressed in the popular uprisings of 1857. In that year villagers and taluqdars all over North India drove off the government officials, destroyed court and burnt down the official records and papers. They also ejected the new auction purchasers from the villages. Though the Mahalwari system eliminated middlemen between the government and the village community and brought about an improvement in irrigation facilities, its benefit was largely enjoyed by the government. The implementation of this system only brought poverty and impoverishment to the rural economy. 

Q  Did the Permanent Settlement in Bengal meet its objectives? Discuss.                                              12

Q  What was the nature of the Permanent Settlement that was tried out in Bengal?                          12

A   Permanent Settlement - Main Features - 

In this method, the land tax to be paid to the government was permanently fixed. There was assurance from the government not to increase land tax in the future. The state would not demand anything extra even if the production increases as it was believed that landholders would invest money in improving the land.

Zamindars - The zamindars became the agents of govt who were assigned the duty to collect taxes (land revenue). The zamindar had to pay the tax which was fixed upon it, by collecting from the peasantry and if he did so then he was the proprietor, the owner of his zamindari. However, he had the right to sell, mortgage or transfer it. The members of his family would inherit the lands after him. If however, the zamindar failed to pay the tax due, then the Government would take the zamindari and sell it by auction and all the new owners would have all the rights. 

Peasantry - The actual cultivation of the land was carried on by the peasants who were reduced to the status of tenants of the zamindars. Now the peasants were wholly at the mercy of the zamindars who can evict them at will. 

             The permanent assessment demand was fixed as the largest sum that could be extracted out of the land by the government. It was a heavy and oppressive assessment. The tax demand was huge, it led to oppressive methods employed by zamindars to collect revenues. The zamindars could seize the tenant's property if the rent had not been paid. He did not need the permission of any court of law to do this. This greatly worsened the position of the actual cultivators of the soil, in order to benefit the zamindars and the British Government.

The objective of Permanent Settlement - The main objective of this system was to get maximum money out of land every year without variation. The zamindars were obliged to pay a fixed amount every year on fixed dates and any failure on their part meant the sale of the zamindari. Furthermore, the land revenue demand fixed by the government was so high that it left no margin for shortfalls due to flood, drought or another calamity. As a result, many zamindars had their zamindaris taken away and sold in the decades immediately after the permanent Settlement. The government benefited immensely which was the primary objective.     

Q  Discuss the effects of the Permanent Settlement on Bengal. 

A  Effects of Permanent Settlement on Bengal

Zamindars -  The zamindars became the agents of govt who were assigned the duty to collect taxes (land reverse). The zamindar had to pay the taxes which was fixed upon it by collecting from the peasantry and if he did so then he was the proprietor, the owner of his zamindari. They were obliged to pay a fixed amount by fixed dates every year, and any failure on their part meant the sale of the zamindari. Furthermore, the land revenue demand fixed by the government was so high that it left no margin for shortfalls due to flood, drought or another calamity. As a result, many zamindars had their zamindaris taken away and sold in the decades immediately after the permanent Settlement. In Bengal alone, it is estimated that 68 percent, of the zamindari land, was sold between 1794 and 1819. Merchants, government officials, and other zamindars bought these lands. The new buyers would then try to increase the rents to be paid by the tenants in order to make a profit from their purchases.

        Gradually the population of Bengal increased, waste and jungle land came under cultivation. Rents also increased. On the other hand, the tax payable to the government was fixed, so the position of the zamindars improved, and they were able to lead lives of indolence and luxury at the expense of their tenants. 

Peasantry -  The actual cultivation of the land was carried on by the peasants who were reduced to the status of tenants of the zamindars. Now the peasants were wholly at the mercy of the zamindars who can evict them at will. 

             The permanent assessment demand was the largest sum that could be extracted from the land by the government. It was a heavy and oppressive assessment. The tax demand was huge, it led to oppressive methods employed by zamindars to collect revenues. The zamindars could seize the tenant's property if the rent had not been paid. He did not need the permission of any court of law to do this. This greatly worsened the position of the actual cultivators of the soil, in order to benefit the zamindars and the British Government.

Q  Analyse the commercialization of agriculture under the British rule in India. What was its impact ?                                  20

Q  How did the commercialization of agriculture affect the Indian economy in the 19th century?                      12

Q  What was the impact of the commercialization of agriculture on the Indian economy?                                    12

Q  How did the commercialization of agriculture affect the Indian economy & society?                               20

Q  Analyse the commercialization of Indian agriculture under British rule.                                             20

A       After the Industrial Revolution in Britain started, these mills found it difficult to compete with the Indian products, and in the 1780s they launched an agitation, claiming that the East India Company was injuring them by its import of Indian fabrics. The company realized that it needed to promote other lines of export from India, agricultural products were a safe line. They could not compete with British products, and also serve as raw materials for British industry. This strategy had been followed in the case of silk from the 1790s and with the development of the British industry, this trend grew stronger. Furthermore, by the 1789s an indirect method of remitting the Indian tribute via China had begun to take shape. The British imported large quantities of tea from China and had to pay for it in silver, as the Chinese did not want Western goods. However, the Chinese bought Indian products like ivory, raw cotton, and (later on) opium. The Chinese products could be got in exchange for Indian products that the British acquired in India. This system became known as 'triangular trade', with the three points being Calcutta, Canton, and London. Wealth circulated through the first two but gathered in the Company's treasury in the third.

                      The Selection of Commercial Crops

              The crops on which the company concentrated were indigo, cotton, raw silk, opium, pepper, and, in the 19th century, also tea and sugar. Of these, raw silk was used by British weavers as it could not be produced in Britain. Silk remained an important export item til the last decades of the 19th century. The same was true for cotton, and it could also be sold to the Chinese. Opium was smuggled into China. The development of opium as a commercial crop served two objectives of the Company - it gave a large revenue in India and also helped in transferring Indian remittances to London via China. Indigo was a textile dye, extracted from a tropical plant and was in great demand in the West. Tea cultivation was introduced in Assam from the 1840s. Sugar and pepper were other crops that were commercialized during this period. None of these crops competed with or replaced any British product. Moreover cheap agricultural goods acted as raw materials to British industries.

Effects on Indian economy

Impoverishment - One of the major objectives of the exports of agriculture goods was to remit resources out of India. It was the method by which the Indian 'tribute' was transferred to Britain. India received no imports in return for these exports. Obviously such a transfer impoverished India. The cultivation and export of commercial crops thus served to impoverish rather than to enrich India. 

Instability - Agriculture in India was exposed to many hazards like drought, flood or other calamity but with commercial agriculture, another factor was added. The crops were now going to distant markets. Therefore if prices of a commodity drop in one region due to bumper crops, the same trend is repeated in other regions leading to less payment and maltreatment. For example, the Bundelkhand region began to grow a lot of cotton for the Chinese market after 1816. The British officials claimed the area became very prosperous and increased the land tax. However, exports and prices of cotton declined after the 1830’s but the taxes weren’t reduced leading to the impoverishment of the peasantry. Thus, the commercialization added a fresh element of instability to the rural economy.

The various markets

Commercialization developed in India led to the disappearance of the other markets. 

# Labor market - In the ryoti system, the peasants were coerced to cultivate crops and supply them at a very low price. They could survive because they and their families could grow food on the rest of their land - but a landless laborer could not do this, and would have had to be paid more. So the planters and businessmen did not like to employ wage labor, and the labor market did not develop.

# Input market - The peasant had to use his own implements like plough, bullocks, etc. to raise the commercial crop. But he was not paid extra for this - as that would reduce the planters' profits. He could bear the loss because these things were needed to grow his own food supply also, but as in the case with labour, no free market for these input goods could develop . 

# land market - The regime of the tax-collector, the zamindar, and the planter hindered the growth of the land market. Due to high taxes and unreasonable demands by planters, no outsiders were interested in buying land and thus the land market didn’t develop. 

# Free market - There was the credit market, to provide loans. The indigo cultivators were given loans by the planters as a way of tying them down. The interest charged was high while the product was purchased at the minimum possible price leading to a debt trap. On the other hand, the planter himself did not want the advance repaid, because then the peasant would escape from his control. Similarly, in the case of opium, the peasants took the advance to grow the crop at least in part because they feared that a refusal would anger the village headman and the Government. A free market, with the freedom for each individual to act in his own interest clearly did not exist. 

Social structure - The continual use of coercion and State power distorted the markets and prevented the appearance of a full labor market. Production continued to be carried on by the peasant and his family on (his little plot of land), but now the indigo planter or opium agent forced him to mark off a part of his land for a commercial crop, from which he earned little or nothing. The peasant was impoverished and the rural economy was ruined. There was widespread poverty, impoverishment of masses as a consequence famine became a regular feature wiping out the population. But neither the method nor the organization of production was altered. The European businessmen found it more profitable to exploit the small peasant household than to engage in large-scale production with hired labor.  

EHI - 5

Fourth Part

Q  Write a note on the expansion of British rule into South India.               12

A  The expansion of the British in South India was basically the outcome of the hostilities between the English and the French East India Companies. South India was the main arena for French activities. Not only was Pondicherry their capital, but in the neighboring princely states like Hyderabad and Mysore, they wielded great influence. In order to make maximum

profits, it was necessary for a trading company to eliminate all competition and establish its monopoly. Hence it had become very essential for the British to eliminate the hold of the French from this region. With the outbreak of the war in Europe, the stage was set for the First Carnatic War (1740-1748) in India between two rivals. The first war didn’t yield any decisive outcome and it ended after the conclusion of hostilities in Europe between the two rivals.  

   Unlike the first Carnatic war, there was no European war to provide a pretext for the outbreak of hostilities between the English and the French in the second instance. Rivalry in India provided the context, but it became a life and death struggle for the survival of the English and French EIC in India. It was an attempt by both the trading firms to consolidate and extend their respective influence in South India. In this war, the British were the clear winners who diplomatically and militarily outpaced the French and established firmly in South India. 

          By 1756, with the outbreak of the Seven Years' War between the English and the French in Europe the stage was set for the final showdown in India. In this war, the British were in commanding position and after overpowering Bengal were ready to take on the French. In the decisive battle of the third Carnatic War which was fought at Wandiwash on 22 January 1760, the French were defeated and after losing most of the territories were confined to Jinje and Pondicherry. Finally, in May 1760, the English laid siege to Pondicherry. 

        In the aftermath of the third Carnatic War, the English reign Supreme over South India as all the European Rivals had been eliminated and the only task left was subjugating Indian rulers in South India. The major power being the Mysore and Marathas. By the second decade of the 19th Century, the British had secured their position firmly in South India as both the Marathas and Mysore states were defeated by the British.

Q  Write a note on the process of British expansion in North India.                 20

A  There were two major powers in North India these were Awadh and Punjab.

Awadh - The Company's fortunes improved dramatically when Company in collaboration with the influential Indian merchants & nobels, defeated the nawab of Bengal Siraj-ud-Daula in 1757 at Plassey. The massive land revenues generated from fertile agriculture areas were used by the British to enrich its servants and strengthen its army by recruiting more men in the army . The results were the defeat of combined forces of Mir Kasim, Shuja-ud-Daula (the nawab of Awadh), and the Mughal Emperor, Shah Alam II by the British. 

       Although Shuja-ud-Daula was restored the throne of Awadh, he was firmly bound to the Company by a treaty(Subsidiary alliance). It provided for mutual defence (paid for by the nawab), free trade agreement for the company in his territory, and payment of Rs.5,000,000 as war debts. The ramifications of this treaty proved enormous for the history of North India. The company through the resident stationed at the Awadh capital was able to encroach upon the powers of the rulers so much so that by the beginning of the 19th Century, many of the higher officials, courtiers and large landholders of the province repose their faith in the company and consider it as a real source of power. Even members of the Nawabi family relied on companies' intervention for securing the position of the Nawabi. 

        Besides slowly annexing territories from the Awadh rulers the Company was also successfully building an alternative base, a source of authority for itself inside Awadh. Through the right of providing extraterritorial protection, the successive Residents tried to build a substantial constituency for the Company which extended from bottom to the top. The sepoys from Awadh, enlisted in or retired from the Company's armies, represented the lowest rung of it. The Taluqdars who were displaced by the action of the Nawabs and who successfully appealed to the Company for the restoration of their lands formed the middle of the ladder. The friends and relatives of the deposed or unsuccessful members of the Nawabi family were the highest in order to whom the Company's extended protection.

       Thus by creating an alternative source of authority for itself in Awadh, the company undermined the legitimacy of the Awadh rulers. This way the Company kept on encroaching on the material and moral domains of the Awadh rulers so much so that the annexation of 1856 became a logical conclusion.

Punjab - After the death of Maharaja Ranjit Singh in June 1839, Punjab was in the grip of political instability and rapid changes were taking place in the government. Kharak Singh, Nav Nihal Singh, Chand Kaur, Sher Singh & finally Dalip Singh were brought to the throne in quick succession. Conspiracy & intrigues were widespread and the army played a major role in all these changes that took place in the government. Prolonged and bloody battles were generally fought to bring the claimant to the throne or to dislodge the incumbent. 

           The British soon found their opportunity due to the repeated changes in the government of Punjab. The corruption among the officials, general indiscipline in the army and the disenchantment of the mercantile class were other factors that favored the British. An alliance was formed with the high ranking officials in government and army by British which proved beneficial to the British in the first war between Company and Sikh state. Due to the treachery of high officials, the formidable Punjab army was defeated in a series of encounters and was forced to sign the humiliating treaty of Lahore in 1846. Under the treaty, the British annexed the Jalandhar Doab region. The Punjab army was reduced to 20,000 infantry and 12,000 cavalry and a strong British force were stationed at Lahore. The British Resident at Lahore was given extensive authority to intervene in all matters of the state department. The British stationed their troops in Punjab while the expenses were to be paid by the Lahore government. 

         All these, however, did not satisfy the British as their ultimate aim was direct rule over Punjab. Taking advantage of the revolt by the Diwan of Multan in 1848 against the Lahore Durbar, the British sensed the opportunity to annex Punjab. In the campaign of 1849, the Sikh forces were decisively defeated and Punjab was annexed. Thus the British swallowed the very kingdom they were supposed to protect.

Q  Briefly outline the main changes in the European economy during the 18th century. 12

A  During the 18th century the changes in agriculture and industry brought about by the use of technology were such that they revolutionized the European economy and the society in particular Britain. This period witnessed the transformation from a mercantile economy to an industrial economy in Europe. 

           Political stability, a growing demand for products and the society which has the will to industrialize brought England on the threshold of the Industrial revolution. The necessary combination of capital, entrepreneurship, and technology brought industrial revolution. Such was the pace of growth after the 1780s that it revolutionized production and laid the foundations of the modern society. The ability to exploit the opportunities and utilize new inventions for production helped in getting a competitive advantage both in the domestic and external market which was crucial for the economy. 

           By the eighteenth century, Britain had earned the reputation of being the shopkeeper of the world. In addition to cotton textiles, metallurgy especially copper and steel manufacture, glass & paper industries experienced tremendous growth. The invention of the steam engine and its application in modernizing the transport sector further boosted the European economy. 

         The Industrial Revolution brought about a series of changes in the organization of production. Based on the rapid usage of technology the factory system started replacing the putting-out system. In the putting out System the artisan owned his tools and produced finished goods at home for the merchant by taking advances. In the factory system, the labor was employed by the factory owner; the worker did not own tools and machines, he only received wages for rendering labour services. The Industrial Revolution meant a radical change in production as well as redistribution of Labour from agriculture to industry.

        Thus in the 18th century, along with the creation of a working-class, the capitalist class also emerged and matured. Capitalists came from the ranks of merchants, landlords and also better off artisans who invested capital in industries. They used wage Labor and technology to make profits in the market. The profits were re-invested and competitive advantage was sought by using better and efficient techniques of production. Thus the 18th century witnessed tremendous change in the European economy from a trading mercantile dependent economy to an industrial economy.

Q  Mercantilism                                                           6

A   In the 17th century the countries of Europe were under the influence of a set of economic ideas and practices known as mercantilism. These can be summarized as- 

1.  It was believed that the volume of world trade is more or less fixed. State policies should be framed in such a manner that the country should strive to get maximum share of this world trade.

2. Precious metals. i.e gold and silver denotes the wealth of the nation. If a nation did not possess a natural source of precious metal, it should get it through trade. 

3.  In order to accumulate precious metals, the government should frame a favorable balance of trade policy. It means the value of exports should always exceed the value of imports. In other words more gold and silver should come into the country than the amount going out.

4. To preserve and increase this balance, high tariffs should be imposed to reduce imports of manufactured goods. Lower tariffs to encourage the import of cheap raw Material and bounties on exports should be given.    

5. The state should take steps to promote exports, especially of manufactured goods by establishing state-run workshops and factories, by granting monopolies and regulating the guilds.

6.  Colonies should be used both as a market for exports and as sources of supply cheap raw material and if possible precious metals. If necessary, wars must be waged against rivals for the protection of the colonies.  

7.  It was believed that colonies should be feeders to the mother country. Manufacture of certain commodities was either forbidden or discouraged for fear of spoiling the market of the mother country and exhausting the supply of raw materials. All colonial trade should be a monopoly of the mother country.  

Q  Discuss the nature and pattern of European trade in Asia during the 17th century.  12

A   When European companies started trading with India in the seventeenth century their main problem was that they had few goods to offer in return for Indian commodities. For nearly three centuries the balance of trade was largely in favor of Asia and they had to struggle with the problem of financing an adverse balance of trade with Asia. Apart from wine and oil their ships brought little from Europe. Gold and silver brought into Europe from the mines of South America was used to finance trade with Asia and in particular India.

           The European companies were facing severe criticism at home for doing this and were under constant pressure to find other ways of paying for their trade-in Eastern goods. A partial solution to this problem was found by capturing the intra-Asian trade. The Europeans started making good profits by bringing Spice Islands cloves and Japanese copper to India and China, Indian cotton textiles to South East Asia and Persian carpets to India thereby paying for some of their imports from India. However, only in the later part of the eighteenth-century when the English started getting land revenues from Bengal and by exporting opium to China that a final solution to the problem of the deficit trade was found. 

            In the seventeenth century, the bulk of the profits of European companies came from the sale of commodities brought from Asia to the markets of Europe, Africa, the American continents and to the Middle East. A triangular trade had developed between Europe, the Americas and the West Coast of Africa. Trade with the East was an important part of it.

           Spices were very high on the list of commodities demanded by the Europeans. Among spices, it was pepper alone which dominated the trade in the sixteenth and early seventeenth century. However, towards the end of the seventeenth century, there was a change in the commodity structure of the trade. Cotton textiles, silk, and saltpeter became very important in trade in place of spices. Indian textiles were regularly demanded by the English and the Dutch companies from the second decade of the 17th century.

Europeans were using Indian textiles in the trade with other parts of Asia where it was demanded as a barter commodity. Indian textiles are famous for their range, variety, and quality. Saltpeter required for the manufacture of gunpowder and indigo were other commodities which was also in much demand by the European companies in the 17th century.

Q  Discuss the structure and pattern of trade of the European companies with India during the 17th 18th centuries       12

A  Above answer and then industrial revolution and India becoming a source of raw material and market for finished goods.  

Q  Why did the British try to expand their control beyond Indian borders? Explain with reference to China and Afghanistan.   20     

A   English interest in expansion outside India was influenced by two major factors:-

Markets and supplies:  The British wanted to find new markets for the goods procured in India. They also required goods in exchange for trade with China. Apart from these, the British wanted to procure material like saltpeter for its military in South and South-East Asia;

Strategic: There was the need- to safeguard the Indian empire and the trade routes to China and India. 

With China - By the 1770s, Bengal had been milked dry due to policies adopted by the British and its economy was in shambles. Consequently, the profits of the East India Company declined and the Company started reporting massive losses. Such losses were doubly troublesome because not only did they hurt the dividends of the powerful shareholders of the Company in England but also jeopardized the extremely lucrative trade with China. Chinese tea, silks, and nankeens sold at a high profit in Europe and the Company had the English monopoly over this trade. However, the Chinese at this time sold their goods only in exchange for silver; and the silver had been provided mostly by Bengal. 

While the Company was establishing itself in India it had a growing trade with China. As in India, so in China-the Company had a monopoly over trade. But from the Company’s point of view, there were two key problems faced by them in trade -

#  that the Chinese government-controlled it closely and they were restricted to the port city 

#  they only traded mostly in exchange of silver

    Due to depletion of the wealth of Bengal the company sought to pay for the China trade by-

#  replacing silver by opium grown in the Malwa region of Central India and

# by obtaining-high-priced spices from South-East Asia for sale in China and Europe. 

The latter compelled the Company to expand itself into South-East Asia.

Q  Monopoly trade                                                         6

A  The English East India Company was granted a monopoly to trade in the East by the government of England through a charter. It means the East India Company was legally entitled and has exclusive control of trade with India and other countries in the East. All other British traders and Companies were barred from trading with India and East. There were some other countries left like Portuguese, French, etc along with Indian traders who were working along with East India Company in the market. The EIC used diplomacy and warfare to sideline other countries from trading with India. After gaining political control over territories in India, they debarred Indian trading firms and merchants from dealing in markets. Thus the Monopoly of EIC was established. Thereafter it started harassing weavers and artisans who were bullied to supply the goods below the market price. Thus the artisans were reduced step by step to the position of bonded laborers by the denial of free access to the market. They were forced to supply their produce to the Company at low prices arbitrarily fixed by the Company. 

EHI - 5

Third Part

Block - 2

Q  Comment on the differences between the Orientalists and the Utilitarians.       20

A  Orientalists - They were the British administrators who were of the opinion that to administer India properly, a thorough knowledge of India and its past was needed. Orientalists like Warren Hastings wanted to establish institutions of learning which would first acquire the knowledge of the golden past of India and then convey it to those who could be administering India. He was not in favor of introducing English laws & English ways in India. His main idea was to rule India in their own way. He felt that the rapid growth of the British rule had started various prejudices. These, he felt, needed to be stopped. Secondly, he wanted to reconcile British rule with the Indian institutions. This required more intensive investigation into the 'manners and customs' of the country. It also required an in-depth analysis of the literature and laws of the Indians. It is for this purpose that Halhed, one of Hastings's lieutenants, drew up a list of religious and customary laws called the 'Gentoo Laws' which would help in facilitating the process of reconciliation. 

Another orientalist William Jones, an English Jurist helped in establishing an Asiatic society in 1784. This society was engaged in studying India from within close quarters of its social, religious, linguistic & political aspects. The Asiatic Society contributed in a major way by translating from Persian & Sanskrit works of Grammar, Puranas and the writings of Kalidasa. Secondly, the members of the Asiatic Society researched and published a large number of articles on Indian society and religion. 

In order to provide practical training & familiarizing with Indian administration, the Orientalists established the Fort William College at Calcutta in 1800. The Fort William College basically impressed upon its students to study the Indian language so that the future administrators are at ease while dealing with Indian subjects, their customs, sensitivities, etc. It would also help them in understanding society and India's past in a more concrete fashion. Moreover, studying Persian served the very practical needs of the British administrators. Most of the Indian states used Persian as the language for maintaining official records and running the day to day business. Thus the vision of learning about India's past glory and the practical needs of the British administration were neatly dovetailed(intermixed). 

It is because of Orientalist vision that the Indian Residents who were posted at the courts of various submissive Indian rulers, combined both the knowledge and usage of Persian with the cultural lifestyles of the court. 

 Utilitarians - The Utilitarians didn’t believe in the liberal route of education for the task of 'civilizing' and 'improving' India. The utilitarians didn’t share the ideas and visions of orientalists. The utilitarians had no regard for Indian past history or experience. They wanted to bring in change through reforms of law and landed property. They wanted to create conditions where the markets could flourish. 

The question of law as an instrument of change was proposed by them. They wanted judiciary or law to be used for changing Indian society and restricting practices like Sati and female infanticide. They believed that law could be an instrument of change and through the enactment of laws under their supervision, Indian society could be transformed into a modern society from that of superstitious society. Thereafter a series of laws and penal codes were enacted under the influence of Utilitarians.

 The utilitarians opposed any form of representative government in India at that time as well as in the near future. Utilitarianism in India despite being born in the tradition of liberalism could never accept a democratic government in India. One of the utilitarian James Mill consistently opposed any form of representative government in India then or in the future. Moreover, the impulse of changing the Indian society through the enactment of laws, landed property or education gradually declined under the utilitarians. The later British administrators were to emphasize that the British rule had always been governed by law. However, it was argued then for efficient administration force had to be used and there was no need to justify it by consideration of political change or reform. The utilitarian task of transforming India from an uncivilized society to a civilized nation was subsumed under the principle of an efficient and good government. The government was supported by the 'steel frame'of British administration. The utilitarian philosophy also influenced the views of Dalhousie who created all-India departments with single heads. Under the utilitarians there was a decline of the overall spirit of reform and the British administration was now dominated by the outlook of pragmatism and rationality.

Q  Analyse the importance of utilitarian ideas in bringing about change in India.   12

A  The Utilitarians didn’t believe in the liberal route to education for the task of 'civilizing' and 'improving' India, they had no regard for Indian past history or experience. They wanted to bring in reforms of law and landed property to create conditions where the market could flourish. The question of law as an instrument of change was proposed by them. They wanted judiciary or law to be the instrument of changing Indian practices like Sati and female infanticide. They believed that law could be an instrument of change and through the enactment of laws; Indian society could be transformed into a modern society from that of superstitious society. A series of laws and penal codes were enacted under the influence of Utilitarians. As a result of their efforts, a series of laws and penal codes were enacted to make India civilized and improved. 

The utilitarians opposed any form of representative government in India at that time as well as in the near future. Utilitarianism in India despite being born in the tradition of liberalism could never accept a democratic government in India. James Mill consistently opposed any form of representative government in India then or in future. However this impulse to link the, task of changing the Indian society to the tasks of law, landed property or education gradually declined under the utilitarians. The later British administrators of our period were to emphasize that the British rule had always been governed by law. However, it was argued then for efficient administration force had to be used and there was no need to justify it by consideration of political change or reform. The utilitarian task of transforming India then was subsumed under the principle of an efficient and good government held up by the 'steel frame'of British administration. The utilitarian philosophy also influenced the views of Dalhousie in creating all-India depart­ments with single heads. What we notice was the decline of the overall spirit of reform and the British administration was now dominated by the outlook of pragmatism and rationality.

Q   Evangelicalism                                                          6

A   In the initial part the British Orientalists focused on learning about the Indian past, society and wanted to administer it, in its own way without disturbing it, however, the Christian Missionaries resented this approach. The missionaries were of opinion that Indian society was in a degenerative state and only Christian values and Religion is the remedy. They wanted to get on with the task of reforming the current degeneration of the Indian society. The missionaries were hostile to Indian traditions, culture, religion etc. This hostility was the hallmark of evangelicalism, it was combined with the desire to 'civilize' India. The missionaries were supported by the merchant community who wanted to benefit from the enactment of laws to acquire property etc. in India as desired by missionaries. Under "free trade' the merchant community wanted to creating a market for British goods amongst the Indians. The British East India Company also supported the activities of missionaries. Missionary like Charles Grant saw a complementarity between the civilizing process and material prosperity. 

Q  Discuss the nature of Indian polity in mid 18th century. 20

A  Mughal decline - The Mughal decline was one of the predominant features of the 18th century. Aurangzeb's misguided policies had weakened the stable Mughal polity. Wars of succession and weak rulers plagued Delhi from 1707 to 1719. Muhammad Shah's rule from 1719 to 1748 was long enough for a revival of imperial fortunes but the complete incompetence of the emperor ruled out this possibility. Nadir Shah's invasion in 1739 & the massacre of Delhi seriously weakened an already feeble Mughal empire. Other factors including economic crisis contributed to the empire's decline. By 1761 the Mughal empire was an empire only in name, confined largely to the state of Delhi and by 1783 the Mughal emperor was a pensioner of the British. 

The emergence of Regional Polities - 

            Along with the decline of the Mughal empire, the second major theme of the 18th Century was the emergence of regional polities. Broadly there were three kinds of

states which came into prominence:- 

# the states which broke away from the Mughal empire,

# the new states set up by the rebels against the Mughal, and

# the independent states.

Successor States

Hyderabad, Bengal, and Awadh falls in the category of successor states where provincial governors appointed by the Mughals set up independent states. The breakaway from Delhi didn’t take place suddenly but occurred in stages - the revolt of individuals followed by that of the social groups, communities and finally regions. Zamindari revolts in the provinces against imperial demands triggered off the breakaway. Governors did not get support from the center and tried to secure the support of the local elites. However, links with the center were maintained and the Mughal tradition continued. A new political order emerged within the Mughal institutional framework. 

The New States

The second group of regional states were the 'new states' or 'insurgent states' set up by rebels against the Mughals. These were the Marathas, Sikhs, Jats, and Afghans. The first three states began as popular movements started by the peasantry. The leadership was not with the nobility but with 'new men', often from lower orders. The Maratha state were the most formidable among the regional states. Maratha power reached its zenith by 1761 when expansion was now no longer limited to areas where the Mughals had an uncertain hold. No part of India was spared from the depredations of Maratha conquest. Jats who were the agriculturist Caste inhabiting the Delhi-Agra belt rose up in revolt against Mughal domination and shook the stability of the core area of the Mughal empire. As Jat power grew and consolidated, Jat state was established at Bharatpur. Similarly, Sikhs took advantage of the imperial administration of Punjab and established their control once Abdali and his followers returned home. 

Independent Kingdoms

There was a third type of state which emerged neither because of a breakaway from or rebellion against Delhi. Mysore, the Rajput states and Kerala fall in this category. 

Mysore - The mid-18th century witnessed the emergence of Mysore as a powerful state in South India. Haidar Ali laid the foundations of Mysore's power, which were consolidated by his able son, Tipu Sultan.

Rajput - The Rajput rulers did not lag behind in consolidating their position by taking advantage of the disintegration of the Mughal empire. None were large enough to

contend with the Marathas or the British. Their method was slowly to reduce their ties with Delhi and function as independent states in practice.

Weaknesses of Regional Polities

These states were strong enough to destroy Mughal power but none was able to replace it at an all India level by providing stable polity. 

Rise and expansion of the British power in India:

The third and the most crucial feature of the 18th-century polity were the rise and expansion of the British power in India. The mid-18th century saw the transformation of the English East India Company from a trading enterprises to a political power. The beginning of the empire started in 1757 when the British defeated the Bengal Nawab at Plassey. The ground for the victory of 1757 was laid in South India where British military might and diplomatic strategy defeated the French . The company's need and desire for more revenue encouraged it to gain political power over territories of India and establish its  empire. The company needed money to maintain its trade and pay its troops . The company's interest in conquering territories was two-fold, establishment of monopoly of trade and control over land revenue. 

The regional powers were not able to take the place of the Mughals. Though some states were very prosperous, and some achieved considerable military success, however, none could achieve resources & power to maintain an all-India polity. Modernization attempts were limited. Backward regional states easily succumbed to the superior British system. 

Q  Discuss the British policy towards Afghanistan.                12

A  Through the 1830’s the British used Afghanistan as a buffer against Napoleonic France and Tsarist Russia. In 1836, Dost Muhammad, the then ruler of Afghanistan offered his friendship to the English in return for English help in recapturing the Peshawar valley which Ranjit Singh, the Sikh ruler of Punjab had taken away from the Afghans. As British refused, Dost Muhammad responded by showing signs of friendship towards Russia. This alarmed the British and planned to depose Dost by force. A Tripartite Treaty signed on 26 June 1838 between Shah Shuja an ex-ruler of Afghanistan, Ranjit Singh and the English. Following this treaty a force comprising the armies of the Company, Ranjit Singh and Shah Shuja was assembled to attack Kabul, depose, Dost Muhammad, & establish Shah Shuia on the throne. Dost Muhammad was defeated and Shah Shuja was made the ruler of Afghanistan. British troops, however, instead of withdrawing to India began to garrison Kabul, Jalalabad, Kandhar, and Ghazni. 

In the meanwhile, in September 1840, Dost Muhammad was able to get military help from the Wali of Kholoom. He attacked the English in September but failed. He was forced to surrender in November & was sent to Calcutta as a prisoner. In the spring of 1841, however, popular unrest against the English started. Open rebellion broke out at many points in September 1841. The English in Kabul town were killed and their cantonment besieged. The same happened at Ghazni, Jalalabad, and Kandhar; and the entire Gorkha battalion at Kohistan was done to death. In December finally, the English were forced to accept the humiliating condition of evacuating Afghanistan within three days. The retreating forces were in turn attacked on the snow-covered passes and substantially annihilated.

By May 1842, however, the English forces were able to regroup & re-establish control over Jalalabad and Kandhar. Then with the help of reinforcements from India Kabul was re-taken in September. The costs of this victory were, however, too high in terms of the cost in men and money. Henceforth the English decided to confine themselves within the North-West Frontier and not venture into Afghanistan militarily.

Q  British Policy Towards Burma                                              6

A  Burma was important for the British both for commercial and strategic reasons. Burma exported some costly items like tin, pepper, and ivory. More importantly, it was a major supplier of timber for the shipbuilding and repair industry based in Calcutta. Also, towards the end of the 18th century, the deltas of the Irrawady river became important suppliers of rice to the growing settlements in the South-East Asia to Bengal. In 1823-24, the Burmese military, pursuing rebels, entered and occupied Assam and Manipur and prepared to attack Chittagong. As these territories were claimed by the British it led to First Anglo-Burmese War (1824-26). In this war, Burma was defeated and besides losing control over Assam& Manipur, the Burmese king lost a large part of Burma and most of his coast . He was also forced to accept a British Resident at his capital and pay a huge indemnity. In 1852, the British decided to attack Burma on the pretext of restoring the dignity of the English resulting in the Second Anglo-Burmese War. The Burmese king lost most of his territory and finally, Burma was annexed in 1885 by the British.