EHI - 5

10th Part

Q  Analyse the importance of the utilitarian ideas in bringing about change in India.  12

Q  Discuss the role of the utilitarian ideas on the British attitude towards India.     12

Q  Utilitarianism                                                           6

Q  How were the Utilitarian ideas on India different from the Orientalist ones?      12

A  Utilitarians were largely responsible for the kind of administration and judicial system that came into being in India. The utilitarians reflected on how to govern and control India and their ideas gradually gained acceptance in Britain perhaps because they represented and combined the interest of the British merchants. manufacturers and missionaries. The utilitarian ideas were - 

#  Indian society was seen by them as completely devoid of the values of rationalism and individualism, which were considered essential principles for building a modern society.

#  A traditional and decadent society like India could be improved through proper legislation, which would impart "human justice" as against "divine justice" practiced in traditional societies. This meant that "British administration with its principles of justice and uniformity could convert India into a progressive and dynamic society. 

#  James Mill, therefore, dismissed the idea of giving any power and responsibility to Indians. Utilitarians prescribed a modern machine of government, run by the British. 

     Thus, the utilitarian thinking was an advocacy of a 'Rule of Law'. Laws were to be scientifically defined & embodied in a written form in codes. They were to be implemented through the creation of a body of local courts to make the law accessible to every man. Only this could create an individualist competitive society. The Rule of Law meant that the administration was now to be carried out strictly according to certain laws that defined the rights, privileges, and obligations of the people, and not according to the personal desires of the rulers. It also meant that in theory at least, nobody was above law. Even the official. and those who supervised law, were in theory, accountable to the same set of laws and could be brought before a court of law for violating any law. The law once formulated, could place

restrictions on the actions of the rulers. However, the laws formulated and interpreted were such that they contained enough space for the oppression of the people.

        Equality before the law meant that in theory all the citizens irrespective of their caste, status, etc. were now placed at an equal footing in the eyes of the law. The concept of equality before law did not, of course, include Europeans into its fold. Separate courts and laws were set up for them. In criminal cases, they could be tried only by the European Judges. In reality, total equality before the law could not possibly be implemented. But it did bring about national equality among Indians.   

Q  Explain the administrative and judicial systems developed by the British in India in the19th century.                              20

Q  What was the nature of the new administrative system introduced by the British in India?                                  20

Q  The Administrative system developed by the British     6

Q  What was the nature of the judicial and administrative system that was established by the British in India?                 12

Q  What were the changes and innovations introduced by the British in Indian administration?                                 20

Q Write in brief on changes introduced by the British in Indian administrative system  12

Q  Discuss the nature of the Civil Service established by the British in India.         12

A  Judicial system - 

                The British laid the foundation of a new judicial structure in India that grew and evolved over a period of time. Many changes were made in it and it was subsequently applied to other parts of India. One important feature of the judicial system was it displayed tolerance towards the existing traditional and religious laws. The criminal courts did not completely abolish the Muslim criminal law but applied it in a modified form, so as to make it less harsh. Similarly, the civil courts also did not do away with the customary laws which had been followed by the local people.

     Another feature of the new judicial system was the enactment of laws and codification of old laws. The British created a new system of laws. They introduced regulations, codified the existing laws and the laws were now open to judicial interpretations and subsequent

amendment. In 1833, a Law Commission was appointed which prepared the Indian Penal Code, Civil laws and Criminal laws that were applicable throughout the country. There were different types of laws in India before 1833. There were the English Acts, Presidency Regulations, Hindu Law, Muslim Law, Customary Law etc. By this Act, the Governor-General was empowered to appoint the Law Commission to study, collect and codify laws in India. The two main theoretical principles of the judicial system were the notions of the Rule of Law and Equality before law.

      The Rule of Law meant that the administration was now to be carried out strictly according to certain laws. It defined the rights, privileges, and obligations of the people that were not according to the personal desires of the rulers. It also meant that in theory at least, that everyone was equal before the law and nobody was above law. Even the officials and those who supervised law were accountable to the same set of laws and were liable to be punished if found violating any law. The laws once formulated, could place restrictions on the actions of the rulers. However, the laws formulated and interpreted in such a way that they contained enough space for the oppression of the people. 

      Equality before the law meant that in theory, all the citizens irrespective of their caste, religion, status, etc. were equal in the eyes of the law. The concept of equality before the law did not apply to Europeans. There were separate courts and laws set up for them. In criminal cases, they could be tried only by the European Judges. In reality, total equality before law was not implemented. But it did bring about national equality among Indians.

Administrative System - The main aim of the British administration in India was the maintenance of law and order and the perpetuation of the British rule. The three main

pillars of the British administration in India were:-

#  the civil service

#  the Army, and

#  the Police

Civil Service - Assignment   

The Amy and the Police - 

The bulk of the Company's army consisted of Indian soldiers. In 1857 the Indians constituted about 86% of the total strength of the Company's army. The army played a crucial role in the expansion of British domination over the Indian rulers. However, after the conquest over India was over and after the elimination of rival foreign powers, the main task of the army was to keep India under subjection. A secondary task was to fight England's wars with the Russian, or the French or with Indian neighboring countries.

The third Pillar of the British administration was ‘Police’ which was created by Cornwallis. Till then, the function of the Police was performed-by Zamindar through their armed retainers. They were now stripped off their power, their armed retainers were disbanded and in its place, a police force was set up. This force was entirely at the command of the government of the East India Company. This force was grouped into Thanas, headed by a Daroga who was an Indian. These thanas were initially under the general supervision of the District Judge but later the post of District Superintendent of Police was created to head the police organization in the district. Finally, the police force was handed over to the civil service and the collector in the district also controlled the police. The main task of the police was to handle crime, maintain law and order and also to prevent conspiracy against the British rule. Later, in the 20th century, the police were employed in a big way to suppress the growing national movement.  

Civil Services -  The main job of the civil service was to apply the law and the collection of revenue. The term 'civil services' was used, for the first time by the East India Company mainly to demarcate its civilian employees from their military counterparts. The service was initially the only commercial in nature but was later transformed into public service. Initially, the method of recruitment in the Civil Services was through the system of patronage in the hands of the court of Directors who were free to nominate their sons and nephews for the services. The idea of 'competition' for recruitment (as against nomination practiced earlier) was introduced for the first time by the Charter Act of 1833. But it was to be a very limited competition and could be termed as nomination-cum-competition for recruitment. But gradually the demand for open Public competition started gaining ground. The Charter Act of 1853 ultimately took away the power of the court of Directors to make nominations and thus it was thrown open to competition. 

       The Chief Officer in the district was the collector who was initially responsible for the collection of revenue. He had the authority to decide all disputes related to the boundary and the rent. He was assisted by a Tehsildar who was an Indian. After the reforms of 1831, the offices of the Magistrate and the local chief of Police were also transferred to him. This gave him total authority in the district. Given the large size of some of the districts, a post of Deputy Collector, placed between the Collector and the Tehsildar in the hierarchy was also created after 1831. This was soon converted into an uncovenanted post which meant that experienced Indians could be employed as Deputy Collectors.

The Indian Civil Services in years to come developed into one of the most efficient and powerful civil services in the world. Its members played a very crucial role in the framing of the British Policies in India and also in maintaining and running the mighty British empire in India. The result was a network of laws applicable throughout the country and a vast administrative structure to implement the laws.

EHI - 5

Block 6
9th Part

Q  Discuss the Government of India Act of 1858.              12

Q  Discuss the nature of the Government of India Act, 1858. 12

Q  Explain the features and significance of the Government of India Act, 1858.       12

A   As the Charter Act of 1853 did not give the East India Company the right to govern India for another 20 years, it gave an opportunity to the Home Government to step in and take the responsibility in the place of the East India Company in India. This process was further hastened by the happenings of 1857 'Mutiny'. 

Features - 

Due to the Government of India Act of 1858 - 

# The Government of India passed from the hands of the English East India Company to the crown. The armed forces of the company were transferred to the crown.

#  The Board of control and court of Directors were abolished. Their place was taken by the Secretary of State of India and his India Council. They were to govern India in the name of her majesty. The Secretary of State was to sit in Parliament. He was a cabinet minister of England and as such was responsible to Parliament. Ultimate power over India remained with Parliament of England.

#  The Act created an India council of fifteen members. It was to advise the Secretary of State on matters, who had the power to overrule its decisions. Approval of the Council was essential in financial matters. Most of the members of the Indian Council were those who had retired from Indian services and as such has experience to work in India.

#  The Secretary of State was given the power of sending and receiving secret messages & despatches from the Governor-General without the necessity of communicating them to the India Council. The Secretary of State was to present a report periodically to the House of Commons on the moral and material progress of India.

#  The Government of India in its dealings with England was guided by the directions laid down by the Secretary of State. All matters concerning legislation, land revenue, public works, railways, jobs, new expenditure, and policies were rigidly scrutinized and controlled by the Secretary of State. The Rules and Regulations made in India by the secretary of state were to be laid on the table of the House of Commons.

Significance - 

The Governor-General became known from now as the Viceroy or Crown's representative. In matters of policy formation and its execution, the viceroy was reduced to a subordinate position in relation to the British Government. The Government of India was finally directly under the control of London.

Q  What are the differences between the Charter Act of 1833 and 1853?            12

Q  Write a note on the charter Act of 1833.                              12

A  Charter Act of 1833 - 

The British East India Company was to have only political functions. The President of the Board of-Control became the minister for Indian affairs. The Directors of the Company were to act as expert advisors of the President of the Board of Control. The Board of Control was given the authority to superintend, direct and control the affairs of the Company relating to the revenues of the Indian territory.

   The Governor-General of Bengal became the Governor-General of India. The Governor-General in Council was given the authority to superintend, direct and control the civil and military affairs of the Company. Bombay, Bengal, Madras and other regions were now under the complete control of the Governor-General in Council. 

The Central Government was to have complete control over raising of revenues and expenditure. The expenses of the Provincial Governments, creation of new offices, and obedience of all members of the Government of Bombay, Madras were under the strict control of the Central Government.

     By the Act of 1833, the Governor-General in Council was given the authority to legislate for the whole of the British territories in India. These laws were applicable to all persons, British or Indian, foreigners or others and to the servants of the Company. These laws were enforceable by all courts of law in India. The Act of 1833, added one more member to the Executive council of the Governor-General, the Law Member. The work of the law member was fully legislative. He had no vote in the Council and he was to attend meetings, on the invitation. 

         Bombay and Madras were to keep their separate armies under the Commanders-in-Chief. They were to be under the control of the Central Government. The Act provided for the codification of laws in India. There were different types of laws in India before 1833. There were the English Acts, Presidency Regulations, Hindu Law, Muslim Law, Customary Law, etc. By this Act, the Governor-General was empowered to appoint the Law Commission to study, collect and codify laws in India. The Indian Penal Code and Civil laws and Criminal Law were enacted by the efforts of the Indian Law Commission. 

        The Charter Act of 1833 made no provision to secure the nomination of Indians to the covenanted services of the company.

Charter Act of 1853 -    

By the Act of 1853, the separation of the executive and the legislative functions went a step further. There was a provision of including additional members to the council for the purpose of the legislation. 

The Law Member was made a full member of the Executive Council of the Governor-General. The consent of the Governor-General was made necessary for all legislative proposals. In this framework, the central legislature was completed. The Central Legislative Council was to consist of one representative from each of the Provinces. Measures related to the province were to be considered in the presence of representatives from that province. The Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Calcutta became the ex-officio member of the Central Legislative Council. Two more civilians might be nominated by the Governor-General, but this authority was never exercised.

The Council in its legislative capacity was to consist of 12 members. These included the Governor-General, Commander-in-Chief, four members of his council and six legislative members. 

All vacancies in India were to be filled in by competitive examinations. Lord Macaulay was appointed the President of the Committee. The number of Directors was reduced from 24 to 18. Six of them were to be nominated by the Crown. The Company was allowed to retain possessions of the Indian territories.   

Q  What were the main features of the Charter Act of 1813?  
          A        Inquiries into the Company's affairs were ordered before another renewal of the Charter which was due in 1813. In 1808, the House of Commons appointed a Committee to investigate into the affairs of the company. Its report on judicial and police arrangements was submitted in 1812. The government decided to allow British subjects access to India with their ships. 

The Home Government had specifically directed the Government of India not to follow the policy of conquests. However, the aggressive policies adopted by the company resulted in the acquisition of more territories in India. Lord Wellesley and Hastings continued to follow an imperialistic policy. The Company's power had spread to the whole of India except Punjab, Nepal, and Sind. Company requested for financial help from the Parliament due to overspending in wars and setback in trade. There was also a lot of agitation in Britain against the continuance of commercial monopoly granted to the East India Company. Independent merchants demanded the end of this policy. They wanted a share in the trade with India. The teachings of Adam Smith and his school during this time was dominating the politics of Britain. The Reformists, the Evangelicals, and the Traditionalists tried to influence British politics and policies towards British India. Their foremost interest was to safeguard the stability of the Empire.

The Act of 1813 renewed the Company's Charter for 20 years, but it asserted the

sovereignty of the British Crown over the territories held by the Company in India. The Company was allowed to have territorial possessions for another 20 years. The Company was deprived of its monopoly of trade with India. It was allowed to continue with its monopoly of trade with China for 20 years. The Indian trade was thrown open to all British merchants.  

Q  Pitt's India Act, 1784                                                    6

A  The purpose of the Pitt’s act was to remove the defects in the Regulating Act. The Company's public affairs and its administration in India were to come directly under the supreme control of the British Government. The right of the Company to territorial possessions was however not touched. The Act established a Board of Control whose function was to guide and control the work of the Court of Directors and the Government of India. They were to control all civil and military matters of the British territories in India.

     The Act established the principle that the government of India is placed under the Governor-General and a Council of three. The Act clearly stated that the Presidencies of Madras and Bombay were subordinate to the Presidency of Bengal in all matters of war, diplomatic relations and revenues. It helped in uniting India by giving supreme power to Governor-General over the Governors of Presidencies. The possessions of the Company in India came under the supremacy of the British Parliament. The Pitt’s Act laid the foundation of a centralized administration.

Q  Regulating Act of 1773                                                  6

A  The Regulating Act was passed by the British parliament to control the Company's Administration. Changes were made in the Constitution of the Court of Directors of the Company. It was required that it should submit to the Government all communications it has received from Bengal about civil and military affairs and revenues of India. In the field of executive government, the status of Governor of Bengal was raised to Governor-General.   The Governor-General in Council was given the authority to superintend and control the presidencies of Madras and Bombay in matters of war and peace. 

The Governors of Madras & Bombay were required to send information regularly to the Governor-General, regarding the government, revenues or interests of the Company. The Governor-General, in turn, was under the direct control of the Court of Directors and kept it fully informed about the affairs or interests of the Company. The Act provided for the establishment of a Supreme Court of Justice at Calcutta. Legislative powers were granted to the Governor-General and Council to make rules. 

Q  Analyse the changes in the colonial policy towards sati and widow-remarriage during the early 19th century.  12

Q  Discuss the British policy on sati and infanticide in India. 12

Q  Briefly discuss the British policy towards 'Sati' in the early 19th century.         12

A  Infanticide - The first traditional social evil custom which was suppressed by the British Indian government was the practice of infanticide. Female infanticide was prevalent in many parts of India. The difficulty and expenses incurred in marrying girls amongst the different communities in society gave rise to the practice of killing female infants by starvation or poisoning. Jonathan Duncan, the Resident of Benares was the first official who tried to curb this social evil. Instead of unilaterally abolishing infanticide by legislation Duncan met the local Rajkumars and convinced them that the killing of female infants went against the tenets of Hindu scriptures. As the female children were considered an economic liability to their families Duncan promised monetary compensation from the Government if the Rajkurnars abandoned this practice. 

        Around the same time, the Calcutta magistrates sent a letter to the Vice-President in-Council stating that infanticide had never enjoyed sanction under the Mughal or the British governments. They also mentioned that no public opposition was encountered when the police prevented infanticide. Ultimately a law banning infanticide was enacted as Regulation VI of 1802. The abolition of infanticide which appears to have been effective in Bengal did not result in any significant opposition by the public.

Sati - Sati practice was widespread in all the three Presidencies at the beginning of the 19th century. A large number of such incidents were reported from the lower districts of Bengal. Widow burning was practiced not only by the Brahmans but also by other castes. However, in proportion to the total population, the incidence of Sati was very limited. As early as 1795 Colebrook demonstrated that this practice wasn’t sanctioned in Vedic tradition. In the past, a number of Indian rulers including Akbar, Jahangir, Guru Amardas, the Maratha chief Ahalya-bai, the Peshwas, the King of Tanjore and the Portuguese in Goa tried to discourage this practice in their respective areas. 

        However, no sustained and systematic effort was made to suppress this inhuman practice until the 19th century. While the other European companies in Bengal had banned widow burning in their territories, the Calcutta Supreme Court disallowed it only in one part of the city. The British government was also reluctant and hesitated in using coercion to stop this practice. In 1819 and 1821 two Judges of the Supreme Court pleaded for immediate

suppression of Sati arguing that such a measure would not result in any serious public resentment. This plea was however rejected by the government. 

       While the government dragged its feet over this issue, some Indian social reformers led by Ram Mohan Roy spearheaded an agitation for the abolition of Sati. In 1818 he sent a petition to the government urging them to abolish this practice and counter the demand of orthodox Hindus who were against the abolition of Sati. A vigilance committee was organized to strictly implement the age restrictions on the practice of Sati. Rammohan engaged in a debate with the supporters of Sati and wrote pamphlets and newspaper articles to mobilize public opinion against these customs. He used his journal Sambad Kaumudi to further his campaign, with papers like Samachar Darpan supporting him.

       In spite of the mounting demand for its abolition in India and Britain parliament, the company authorities in England did not want to take any decision themselves as they feared public reaction. Finally, it was abolished in 1829 through legislation by Governor-General Bentinck. The abolition of widow-burning by the government did not result in any visible anger or resentment among the Indians. 

EHI - 5

8th Part

Q  Trace the emergence and growth of English education in India. What were its advantages and disadvantages?     20

A        By the Charter Act of 1813, the Company for the first time acknowledged state responsibility for the promotion of education in India. Some of the important points of the resolution that Bentinck announced in 1835 were as follows:

# Persian was abolished as the court language and was substituted by English.

# printing and publication of English books were made free and available at a comparatively low price.

# More fund was provided to support the English education, while there was curtailment in the fund for the promotion of oriental learning.

Auckland who came after Bentinck as the Governor-General also believed in the need for the promotion of English education in India. He recommended the opening of more English colleges in Dacca, Patna, Benares, Allahabad, Agra, Delhi, and Bareilly. The next major landmark in the development of English education in this period was the Wood's Despatch of 1854. Sir Charles Wood, the president of the Board of Control, in 1854 laid down the policy which became the guiding principle of the education program of the government of India. The major recommendations of the Despatch were as follows-

# the creation of a department of public instruction in each of the five provinces of the company's territory,

# the establishment of a university at Calcutta, Bombay a& Madras,

# the establishment of a network of graded schools-high schools, middle schools, and the elementary schools,

# the establishment of teachers training institutions,

# the promotion of vernacular schools,

# the introduction of a system of providing financial aids to the schools, etc.

In 1847 three universities were established in Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras. The establishment of universities & the opening of education departments in the provinces provided a basic structure to modern education in India. The Wood's Despatch provided the model for the further development of education in India. 

       Advantages -

The government promoted this system while neglecting the indigenous system of education in the 19th century. The spread of English education in India was a long process and before 1857 it is spread and depth were limited. The new education broadened the horizon of knowledge. The establishment of the printing press and easy availability of books removed the traditional barriers and made education accessible to more people. The ideas of the western thinkers influenced the younger generation of the indigenous society and they began to question the existing traditional values. A new spirit of rationalism developed. 

There were many Englishmen who tried to promote oriental learning but the Anglicists prevailed over such Orientalists. As a result of it, new schools and colleges were established to promote learning. New social, political and economic ideas emerged as a result of western education. But the education policy ignored scientific and technical education. Moreover, the beneficiary of this education was mainly the upper crust of society. 

     Disadvantages - 

The English education system totally ignored the importance of mass education. In the indigenous system, the elementary schools provided basic education to a wide section of society. But in the new education, the emphasis was to educate a selected few. 

The Anglicists idea of filtering down education from elites to masses did not work in practice. This system did not provide equal access to education to all and this led to an increase of the backwardness of socially backward castes and communities. The existing divisions in society widened.

Secondly, in spite of the advocacy of western science and technology, in the curriculum of schools and colleges, the emphasis was on western literature, philosophy, and humanities. Technology and natural science were neglected and without such knowledge, intellectual advancement, as well as economic development of a country, was hampered. So the transformation that came with English education was very limited in nature.

      

Q  What were the British ideas an Indian education?  12

A  The Orientalist argument was that there was generally a prejudice among Indians against European knowledge and science, so there might be a complete rejection of western knowledge. Some of them were also interested in exploring the classical tradition and

culture of this ancient civilization. They helped in the establishment of Educational institutions like the 'Calcutta Madrasa' by Warren Hastings (1 78 I), the Benares Sanskrit College' by Jonathan Duncan (1 7911 and the 'Asiatic Society of Bengal' by William Jones (1784). They were in favor of the continuation of the existing institutions of oriental learning and promotion of Indian classical tradition. 

   The Evangelicals, however, had no regard for Indian traditions, culture, etc. They had firm conviction in the superiority of Christian ideas and western institutions. They were highly critical of Indian religion and culture. In the end, all of these groups who were called 'Anglicists', believed that Indians were in a backward stage and Western education given through the English language alone was the remedy. 

There were many Englishmen who tried to promote oriental learning but the Anglicists prevailed over such Orientalists. As a result of it, new schools and colleges were established to promote learning. New social, political and economic ideas emerged as a result of western education. In spite of the advocacy of western science and technology, in the curriculum of schools and colleges, the emphasis was on western literature, philosophy, and humanities. Technology and natural science were neglected and without such knowledge, intellectual advancement, as well as economic development of a country, was hampered. Moreover, the beneficiary of this education was the selected few belonging to the upper crust of society. So the transformation that came with English education was very limited in nature. 

Q  What were the different trends of education policy in the 18th and 19th centuries? Did the Indians respond uniformly to this debate?  20

A  Firstly Indian system then English education system 

Second question - 

The response of Indians to this debate over education policy was a mixed one. Ram Mohan Roy and other social reformers favored the introduction of Western education. They believed that it would help Indians to assimilate the knowledge of western science, rationalism, new ideas, and literature. This would help in the regeneration of society and thus the country as a whole. Some other people believed that getting Western education through the English language would help them in getting jobs and coming close to the ruling elite. So they were in support of Western education. In opposition to this, there were many conservatives who were against the introduction of western education in India. They were staunch supporters of Indian classical language, culture and the indigenous system of education. They had the apprehension that the introduction of Western education would lead to the collapse of indigenous society and culture.

Q  Discuss the impact of Western ideas on Indian minds.        12

Q  Discuss the impact of western knowledge on Indian thinking.  12

A  Western education and intellectual discourse was a formidable force that resulted in the making of the new modern Indian culture and mentality in the nineteenth century. The new or renaissance mentality was conspicuously different from that of the Mughal era. The newly emerged nineteenth-century mentality has the components of both secular and religion which were aimed at the combination/synthesis of tradition and modernity. The result was a new point of view, a new set of values that gave importance to both religion, reform as well as secular literary expression. 

The new mood was reflected in the literature that portrayed emotional experiences, the triumph of the human spirit, changing the nature of the relationship between man and woman. The notions of justice and reason were widely accepted. The contemporary intellectuals and ideologues advocated for a more just & rational society. The awakening or renaissance started in Bengal at the beginning of the nineteenth century but spread elsewhere later.

The Indian critical awakening was not just a secular cultural phenomenon but was also a religious reform movement in more than one way. The emerging ethos of the renaissance was given an institutional shape for the first time in the form of the establishment of Hindu College of Calcutta(1817). 

The educated Indians began to appreciate that, Europe had conquered the world of knowledge because of its stress on reasoning. Europe thus infected India with the curiosity to discover the inner workings of all phenomena based on observations and experiments. The ideas of the western thinkers influenced the younger generation of the indigenous society and they began to question the existing traditional values. A new spirit of rationalism developed. The reason was allied to progress. Thereafter conscience was extended from the religious sphere to the social protest. The development of social protest was evident in the proliferation of plays after the Mutiny- Nil Darpan, Jamindar Darpan, etc. The sphere of protest further extended as the intellectuals guided by conscience began to question the entire foundation of traditional society and gave their support to political nationalism. The influence of the new education was rapid and profound. It tried to purge Indian society of outdated ritual, glaring inequalities and grievous disabilities imposed on women. 

Q  New Rationalism                                                    6

A  The educated Indians began to appreciate that, Europe had conquered the world of knowledge because of its stress on reasoning. Europe thus infected India with the curiosity to discover the inner workings of all phenomena based on observations and experiments. The ideas of the western thinkers influenced the younger generation of the indigenous society and they began to question the existing traditional values. A new spirit of rationalism developed. The reason was allied to progress. Thereafter conscience was extended from the religious sphere to the social protest. The development of social protest was evident in the proliferation of plays after the Mutiny- Nil Darpan, Jamindar Darpan, etc. The sphere of protest further extended as the intellectuals guided by conscience began to question the entire foundation of traditional society and gave their support to political nationalism. The influence of the new education was rapid and profound. It tried to purge Indian society of outdated ritual, glaring inequalities and grievous disabilities imposed on women. 

Q  Romanticism                                                           6

A  Romanticism in literature like rationality was the second most distinguishing feature that was part of the modern Indian Renaissance. The popularity, appeal, and accessibility of Western literature had a profound impact on indigenous literary scene. The works of Walter Scott, George Elliot, etc. made a powerful impact on the Indian minds. This was evident in both the form and content of vernacular literature emerged during that time in India. Rise of prose forms- fiction, drama, biography, history, essays, and literary criticism were its consequences. 

The new mood was reflected in literature which showed emotional experiences, human spirit, changing the nature of the relationship between man and woman. An example is Bankim's Kapalkundala. The great historical novels of R.C. Dutta- Maharashtra Prabhat (1878) and Rajput Jivana Sandhya (1879) were other such examples. From 1903 onwards, a new wave started with Tagore's Chokher Bali that established the social and psychological themes as the dominant trend.

Q  William Jones                                                         6

A      William Jones was an English Jurist who committed himself to rediscover India. Jones on coming to India realized that in order to understand India the individual initiatives were not enough. He decided to combine scientific study with the hard work and knowledge of a group of dedicated individuals. It was with this vision, he helped in the establishment of the Asiatic Society of Calcutta in 1784. The Society was to unearth the knowledge about Asia from within and outside Asia. This society was engaged in studying India from within close quarters of its social, religious, linguistic & political aspects. 

       The Asiatic Society contributed in a major way by translating from Persian and Sanskrit works of Grammar, Puranas and the writings of Kalidasa. Secondly, the members of the Asiatic Society researched and published a large number of articles on Indian society and religion. Thus, William Jones contributed in a major way in spreading the romantic fascination of India and her culture throughout Europe.

EHI - 5

EHI-5
Block 5
7th Part 
Q   Explain the impact of the British rule on the Indian education system.                                          20
Q   What was the British thinking on education? How did it transform education in India?                                              20
Q   What was the British Policy on education in India?       12

A    The colonial rulers discarded the indigenous system and replaced it with an education system of their own. Immediately after the acquisition of political power in India, the company officials wanted to maintain, neutrality or non-intervention in the religious and cultural matters of the indigenous society. They feared the adverse reaction and opposition by the local people. However, constant pressure from different quarters, the Missionaries, the Liberals, the Orientalists, the Utilitarians compelled the company to give up its policy of neutrality and to take the responsibility of promotion of education. 

In the initial stage, the company officials patronized oriental learning. 'Calcutta Madrasa' by Warren Hastings (178I), the Benares Sanskrit College' by Jonathan Duncan (1791) and the 'Asiatic Society of Bengal by William Jones (1784) were established by Orientalists. However, Anglicists believed that Indians were in a backward stage and Western education given through the English language alone was the remedy and can transform the society. 

By the Charter Act of 1813, the Company acknowledged for the first time the responsibility of the state for the promotion of education in India. Some of the important points of the resolution that Bentinck announced in 1835 were as follows:

# Persian was abolished as the court language and was substituted by English.

# printing and publication of English books were made free and available at a comparatively low price.

# More fund was provided to support the English education, while there was curtailment in the fund for the promotion of oriental learning.

Auckland who came after Bentinck as the Governor-General also believed in the need for the promotion of English education in India. He recommended the opening of more English colleges in Dacca, Patna, Benares, Allahabad, Agra, Delhi, and Bareilly. The next major landmark in the development of English education during this period was the Wood's Despatch of 1854. Sir Charles Wood, the president of the Board of Control, in 1854 laid down the policy which became the guiding principle for the promotion of the education program of the government of India. 

The major recommendations of the Wood’s Despatch were as follows-

# the creation of a department of public instruction in each of the five provinces of

the company's territory,

# the establishment of a university at Calcutta, Bombay a& Madras,

# the establishment of a network of graded schools-high schools, middle schools

and the elementary schools,

# the establishment of teachers training institutions,

# the promotion of vernacular schools,

# the introduction of a system of providing financial aids to the schools, etc.

In 1847 three universities were established in Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras. The establishment of universities and the opening of education departments in the provinces provided a basic structure to modern education in India. 

       The government promoted the English education system while neglecting the indigenous system of education in the 19th century. The spread of English education in India was a slow and long process and before 1857 it is spread and depth was limited. The new education system promoted by the government broadened the horizon of knowledge. The establishment of the printing press and easy availability of books removed the traditional barriers and made education accessible to people. The ideas of the western thinkers influenced the younger generation of the indigenous society and they began to question the existing traditional values. A new spirit of rationalism thus developed. 

      The English education system had certain drawbacks, it totally ignored the importance of mass education. In the indigenous system, the elementary schools provided basic education to a wide section of society. But in the new education, the emphasis was to educate a selected few. The Anglicists idea of filtering down education from elites to masses did not work in practice. This system did not provide equal access to education to all sections of the society and this led to the backwardness of socially backward castes and communities. The existing divisions in society further widened.

Secondly, in spite of the advocacy of western science and technology, in the curriculum

of schools and colleges, the emphasis was on western literature, philosophy, and humanities. Technology and natural science were neglected and without such knowledge, intellectual advancement, as well as economic development of a country, was hampered.  

Q  What was the indigenous system of education in India? What were the changes introduced by the British?   20

A  There were 'Madrasas' for the Muslims and 'Patshalas' for the Hindus. These ranged from the centers of higher learning in Arabic and Sanskrit to lower levels of the institution for schooling people in Persian and Vernacular languages. Lack of scientific and secular learning was one of the major limitations of the indigenous education system in those days. However, many Hindus attended Persian schools because Persian was then the court language and there were also Hindu teachers in Persian schools. Whether it was a'Madrasa' or Pathshala there were certain common features in the indigenous system of education. Schools were generally run with the help of financial aid by Zamindars or from local rich men. In the curriculum, the main emphasis was on teaching classical languages like Sanskrit, Arabic or Persian and subjects of classical Hindu or Islamic traditions like Grammar, Logic, Law, Metaphysics, Medicines, etc. Though Sanskrit learning was the exclusive domain of the Brahmans, from the reports available of the early 19th century, the non-upper castes and the scheduled castes also had the representation or attended the lower-level schools. Women were generally debarred from the formal education system.

 In the absence of printing press till the 19th century, the oral tradition and memory of the teachers formed the basis of providing knowledge and information which was supported by handwritten manuscripts. The state had little or no role in the promotion of school education through kings would patronize people famous for their learning. Besides the centers for higher learning, there was a large number of elementary schools. Most of the villages in India had these kinds of elementary schools. These were each run by an individual teacher with the monetary help of the village Zamindars or the local elite. These schools used to teach the students elementary arithmetic and basic knowledge to meet the needs of day-to-day life. Students from different sections of society, except the very backward Dis-privileged castes, attended these schools. Thus the education system that existed in India in the early 19th century had its own merits and demerits. The elementary schools provided basic education to rural people and its curriculum was secular in approach. 

Q  What was the approach of the 'Wood's Despatch' towards universalizing education? Discuss.                12                           
                     A  Auckland who came after Bentinck as the Governor-General also believed in the need for the promotion of English education in India. He recommended the opening of more English colleges in Dacca, Patna, Benares, Allahabad, Agra, Delhi, and Bareilly. The next major landmark in the development of English education in this period was the Wood's Despatch of 1854. Sir Charles Wood, the president of the Board of Control, in 1854 laid down the policy which became the guiding principle of the education program of the government of India. The major recommendations of the Despatch were as follows-

# the creation of a department of public instruction in each of the five provinces of

the company's territory,

# the establishment of a university at Calcutta, Bombay a& Madras,

# the establishment of a network of graded schools-high schools, middle schools

and the elementary schools,

# the establishment of teachers training institutions,

# the promotion of vernacular schools,

# the introduction of a system of providing financial aids to the schools, etc.

In 1847 three universities were established in Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras. The establishment of universities & the opening of education departments in the provinces provided a basic structure to promote modern education in India. The Wood's Despatch provided the model for the further development of education in India. 

       The government promoted this system while neglecting the indigenous system of education in the 19th century. The spread of English education in India was a long process and before 1857 it is spread and depth were limited. The new education broadened the horizon of knowledge. The establishment of the printing press and easy availability of books removed the traditional barriers and made education accessible to more people. The ideas of the western thinkers influenced the younger generation of the indigenous society and they began to question the existing traditional values. A new spirit of rationalism thus developed.