EHI - 5

12th Part

Q  What was the nature of the 19th-century reform movement in India?  12

Q  Analyse the social and religious ideas of the 19th-century reformers.    12

Q  Write a critical note on the social and religious ideas of the 19th-century reformers. 12

A   The reformers attacked the socio-cultural evils and religious malpractices that were prevalent in the society such as superstitions and irrationality. The intellectuals did not attack the social system as a whole, their attack was centered only on the perversions and distortions that have crept into the system. They did not advocate a complete breakdown in the existing social structure of the country. In other words, they were advocates of reform and not exponents of revolution.

 The intellectual movement in India was an urban phenomenon. It originated and greatly operated in the urban areas only. The methods used for the propagation of ideas for furthering the cause of reform and for the creation of favourable public opinion were the urban communication channels such as the press, lectures, and sabhas as propaganda network. Although their activities were confined to certain urban pockets, yet the intellectuals were concerned about the plight of society in different regions and the country as a whole.

Social Questions - Nearly all the intellectuals concluded that the condition of women in India was deplorable and wretched. 

Promoted polygamy- The intellectuals demanded equal distribution of rights to women on par with men. They also emphasized the spread of education among women which they considered as a liberating force. Contrary to the British educational policy, science education was given priority by them They were opposed to the monopoly of learning by certain upper castes and class&, and proposed the spread of knowledge to all the segments of society

          The intellectuals placed a very high premium on knowledge. Illiteracy in general & especially among women was held responsible for the degeneration & backwardness of the nation. The spread of education was considered very important. Nearly all the intellectuals held education to be the panacea for all problems

Religious ideas - Thinkers denounced idolatry, polytheism, and the role of priests in spreading superstitions. Social reformers like Raja R M Roy blamed Brahman priests for spreading superstitions and by keeping people ignorant about the true teachings of the indigenous scriptures.

Use of Scriptures

The intellectuals cited Hindu scriptures to justify the reform in the society. The scriptures were used by them according to the need and desirability for furthering the cause of reform.    

Q  Write a note on the main ideas of the reform movement of the 19th century.                   12

Q  What were the main issues taken up by Indian reformers during the 19th century.      20

A  The intellectuals placed a very high premium on knowledge. Illiteracy in general and among women, in particular, was held responsible for national degeneration and backwardness. The spread of education was, therefore, accorded a primary position in the scheme of reform. Nearly all the intellectuals held education to be the panacea for all problems. Contrary to the British educational policy, science education was given priority by them They were opposed to the monopoly of learning by certain upper castes and class&, and proposed the spread of knowledge to all the segments of society. Above answer 

Q  Write a critical note on the contribution and limitations of the 19th-century reform movements in India.   20

A  Contribution includes an emphasis on education, women education, child marriage, eradication of sati, infanticide, social mobility by a new consciousness, etc

Limitations - In terms of impact, extent & achievements, the 19th-century reform movement could not achieve any spectacular success. Caste differences continue to remain strong and the religious and social practices did not die away. Child-marriage and enforced widowhood continue to be a problem as ever. Reform movement affected a very small minority. The masses remained nearly untouched by the ideas of the intellectuals. 

Although the social reformers tried to reach a larger audience by writing in the vernaculars, but despite their best efforts, their ideas were largely confined to the urban middle classes, particularly the educated sections. The methods used for the propagation of ideas for furthering the cause of reform and for the creation of favourable public opinion were the urban communication channels such as the press, lectures, and sabhas as propaganda network. Given the problem of widespread illiteracy in the rural areas & lack of modern and diversified communications networks, they were doomed to have a very limited audience, mainly urban-based. Thus despite their best efforts, the movement remained urban which was its limitations. The colonial rule was also a hindrance in their activities, intellectual ideas and activities could not, therefore, stir the minds of the general public.

EHI - 5

11th Part 

Q  Young Bengal Movement                                               6

A  In the early 19th century, new and radical ideas began to be propagated by a band of young Bengali intellectuals known as the Young Bengal. This movement was largely initiated by an Anglo-Indian teacher of the Hindu College named Henry Vivian Derozio. A free thinker & a rationalist himself he encouraged his students to have a radical and critical outlook. He encouraged them to question all authority, loved liberty and worshiped truth. At Hindu College through his teachings, he influenced his students and won their loyalty. He organized debates where ideas and social norms were freely debated. He constantly encouraged his students to think freely and requested them not to accept anything blindly. His teachings laid stress on the development of the Spirit Of Liberty, equality, and freedom. His activities brought an intellectual revolution in Bengal and his followers known as the Derozians. They attacked old and decadent customs and traditions and began to question the whole fabric of Hindu society and religion. They were staunch rationalists and measured everything with the yardstick of reason. 

Q  Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar                                            6   

A  Pandit Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar was a great Sanskrit scholar. Vidyasagar became the principal of the Sanskrit College in 1851. He introduced the study of western knowledge in the Sanskrit College and opened its gates to non-Brahmin students. His great contribution, however, was in the field of female emancipation. Widow's marriage was the specific social issue he devoted his entire life to. His agitation for legalizing the re-marriage of widows was supported by the enlightened sections in the society. This social issue was supported by various parts of the country and finally, such a law was enacted. Under the supervision of Vidyasagar the first legal Hindu widow-marriage among the upper castes in India was celebrated in 1856. Through his endeavors, nearly 25 widow marriages were organized between 1855 and 1860. He promoted the higher education of women for their general uplift. He also campaigned against child-marriage and polygamy.

Q  Jyotiba Phule                                      6

A  Jotiba Phule was an Indian social activist, a thinker, anti-caste social reformer and a writer from Maharashtra. He was involved in fighting for various social issues including the eradication of untouchability and the caste system, woman's emancipation, etc. In 1873, Phule, along with his followers, formed the Satyashodhak Samaj (Society of Seekers of Truth). The main objective was to attain equal rights for the people belonging to lower castes. People from all religions and castes could become a part of this association which worked for the upliftment of the oppressed classes. He realized that lower castes and women were the most oppressed in Indian society. He believed that education in these sections was vital to their emancipation. He and his wife, Savitribai Phule opened a school for girls. He was also in favor of widow marriage.

Q  Arya Samaj                                                 6

A  The social and religious reform movement in North India was spearheaded by Swamy Dayanand Saraswati who founded the Arya Samaj in 1875. He blamed the Brahman priests for spreading superstitions and by keeping people ignorant about the true teachings of the indigenous scriptures. He stood for inter-caste marriages and female education. However, his inclination towards the Vedas which he regarded as infallible gave his teachings an orthodox look. The Arya Samajists played a vital role in furthering the cause of social reform movement in North India. They were instrumental in weeding out social evils. They worked for the improvement of women, advocated social equality & denounced untouchability and caste-rigidness prevalent in society. Although the Vedas were venerated as infallible by Arya Samaj yet the reforms they undertook were based on free-thinking and rationalism. Arya Samaj established a chain of educational institutions for the education of both boys and girls.

Q  Discuss the social reform movements initiated through the Brahmo Samaj and the Arya Samaj. 12

A  Raja Ram Mohan Roy in 1828 established a new society, the Brahma Sabha which later came to be known as the Brahma Samaj. His primary purpose was to rid Hinduism of its evils and to preach monotheism. It incorporated the best teachings of other religions and acted as a powerful platform for the advocacy of humanism, monotheism, and social regeneration. The Brahmasamajists collectively contributed to the propagation of Rammohan's ideas and changing Bengal's society. They denounced priestly intermediation in religious matters and stood for the worship of one God. They supported widow-marriage, monogamy and women's education.

Can add Raja Roy contribution and Arya samaj above.

Q  Discuss the nature of social discrimination in India. How did people oppose social discrimination? 20

Q  Discuss the nature of social discrimination in India. How did the discriminated groups react to it?           12

Q  How did new consciousness develop against social discrimination in India? 12

Q  Discuss the various forms of social discrimination practiced in India.      12

A      Nature - Indian society being based on the caste system gave birth to different types of social discrimination. The society was divided among two broad social orders - privileged and dis-privileged castes. Viewed from the economic angle, the jatis were hereditary and closed occupation groups. On the two extreme ends were the Brahmins who were the privileged group and the untouchables who faced severe discrimination and were the disprivileged group. 

        The nature of discrimination differed from region to region in the early years of the nineteenth century. In large parts of the Madras Presidency the bulk of the agricultural laborers, belonging to low caste groups. They were said to have been reduced virtually to conditions of slavery. They were forbidden from entering into temples. Wells were strictly forbidden to their use. They were denied the right to carry an umbrella, to wear shoes, golden ornaments, to milk cows, to walk in certain streets, and their women were forbidden to cover their breasts.

        In western India, institutionalized social discrimination persisted against the lower castes groups. They were socially and economically exploited by high castes. Forced labor from artisans and other menial jobs were taken from them by the authorities. It was a common norm in Maharashtra besides restrictions on temple worship. 

        In the Northern and Eastern parts, the conditions were deplorable for untouchables. The barbers, washermen and sometimes even the scavengers refused their services to them. In the social feasts, they were required to sit at a distance from the rest and clear up their own dishes. They occupied an utterly degraded position in the village life. In Bengal, they provided labor services to the high caste Maliks and most of them were ultimately reduced to the position of bonded labor. The Chamars, including Mochis, are found in every part of India, however, they were highly concentrated in the U P and in the bordering area of Bihar on the east and of Punjab on the north-west. Apart from their customary profession, they were often called upon to- perform begar services by the landlords.

  Opposition  - Over a period of time, due to colonial rule and penetration of market forces at the rural level new social consciousness emerged among the depressed classes. Economic opportunities and missionary activities opened up new possibilities and created new opportunities for the depressed castes. It leads to economic prosperity among the dis-privileged Groups. In the changing circumstances, the ideology of hierarchy based society failed to carry conviction especially among the victims of social discrimination. 

         The articulation of this new consciousness was visible in the growth of the Sanskritization process among different lower caste groups. There were others who converted to Christianity in order to escape from the grim realities of the caste-based system. For example, In Travancore, education and Christianity gave the Nadars hope to escape from their sufferings who were till then under the domination of the Nair landlords. Covering of breasts by untouchable women was the first major movement which was launched among the depressed classes to remove the badge of servility. 

         Apart from missionary activities, Indian reformers also contributed immensely towards ending social discrimination from society. The gradual introduction of electoral politics further gave a boost to the lower caste movements. A section of prosperous groups among untouchables like Namasudras of Bengal began to sanskritize their way of life and claim a high kshatriya status. The Namasudra leaders displayed an attitude of defiance to the social authority of the higher castes, organized their caste brethren within the Matua sect and embarked on a policy of protest. Similarly, Nadars in Tamil Nadu who became economically efficient began to sanskritize their manner of life and asserted a high kshatriya status. Towards the close of the nineteenth century, they became powerful enough to challenge the ban on temple entry and in 1895 forced their way into the Sivakasi temple. The Mahars of Maharashtra also claimed Kshatriya status and began to organize themselves under Gopal Baba Walangkar. Towards the end of the 19th century, they emerged as the core group for Ambedkar movement. 

EHI - 5

10th Part

Q  Analyse the importance of the utilitarian ideas in bringing about change in India.  12

Q  Discuss the role of the utilitarian ideas on the British attitude towards India.     12

Q  Utilitarianism                                                           6

Q  How were the Utilitarian ideas on India different from the Orientalist ones?      12

A  Utilitarians were largely responsible for the kind of administration and judicial system that came into being in India. The utilitarians reflected on how to govern and control India and their ideas gradually gained acceptance in Britain perhaps because they represented and combined the interest of the British merchants. manufacturers and missionaries. The utilitarian ideas were - 

#  Indian society was seen by them as completely devoid of the values of rationalism and individualism, which were considered essential principles for building a modern society.

#  A traditional and decadent society like India could be improved through proper legislation, which would impart "human justice" as against "divine justice" practiced in traditional societies. This meant that "British administration with its principles of justice and uniformity could convert India into a progressive and dynamic society. 

#  James Mill, therefore, dismissed the idea of giving any power and responsibility to Indians. Utilitarians prescribed a modern machine of government, run by the British. 

     Thus, the utilitarian thinking was an advocacy of a 'Rule of Law'. Laws were to be scientifically defined & embodied in a written form in codes. They were to be implemented through the creation of a body of local courts to make the law accessible to every man. Only this could create an individualist competitive society. The Rule of Law meant that the administration was now to be carried out strictly according to certain laws that defined the rights, privileges, and obligations of the people, and not according to the personal desires of the rulers. It also meant that in theory at least, nobody was above law. Even the official. and those who supervised law, were in theory, accountable to the same set of laws and could be brought before a court of law for violating any law. The law once formulated, could place

restrictions on the actions of the rulers. However, the laws formulated and interpreted were such that they contained enough space for the oppression of the people.

        Equality before the law meant that in theory all the citizens irrespective of their caste, status, etc. were now placed at an equal footing in the eyes of the law. The concept of equality before law did not, of course, include Europeans into its fold. Separate courts and laws were set up for them. In criminal cases, they could be tried only by the European Judges. In reality, total equality before the law could not possibly be implemented. But it did bring about national equality among Indians.   

Q  Explain the administrative and judicial systems developed by the British in India in the19th century.                              20

Q  What was the nature of the new administrative system introduced by the British in India?                                  20

Q  The Administrative system developed by the British     6

Q  What was the nature of the judicial and administrative system that was established by the British in India?                 12

Q  What were the changes and innovations introduced by the British in Indian administration?                                 20

Q Write in brief on changes introduced by the British in Indian administrative system  12

Q  Discuss the nature of the Civil Service established by the British in India.         12

A  Judicial system - 

                The British laid the foundation of a new judicial structure in India that grew and evolved over a period of time. Many changes were made in it and it was subsequently applied to other parts of India. One important feature of the judicial system was it displayed tolerance towards the existing traditional and religious laws. The criminal courts did not completely abolish the Muslim criminal law but applied it in a modified form, so as to make it less harsh. Similarly, the civil courts also did not do away with the customary laws which had been followed by the local people.

     Another feature of the new judicial system was the enactment of laws and codification of old laws. The British created a new system of laws. They introduced regulations, codified the existing laws and the laws were now open to judicial interpretations and subsequent

amendment. In 1833, a Law Commission was appointed which prepared the Indian Penal Code, Civil laws and Criminal laws that were applicable throughout the country. There were different types of laws in India before 1833. There were the English Acts, Presidency Regulations, Hindu Law, Muslim Law, Customary Law etc. By this Act, the Governor-General was empowered to appoint the Law Commission to study, collect and codify laws in India. The two main theoretical principles of the judicial system were the notions of the Rule of Law and Equality before law.

      The Rule of Law meant that the administration was now to be carried out strictly according to certain laws. It defined the rights, privileges, and obligations of the people that were not according to the personal desires of the rulers. It also meant that in theory at least, that everyone was equal before the law and nobody was above law. Even the officials and those who supervised law were accountable to the same set of laws and were liable to be punished if found violating any law. The laws once formulated, could place restrictions on the actions of the rulers. However, the laws formulated and interpreted in such a way that they contained enough space for the oppression of the people. 

      Equality before the law meant that in theory, all the citizens irrespective of their caste, religion, status, etc. were equal in the eyes of the law. The concept of equality before the law did not apply to Europeans. There were separate courts and laws set up for them. In criminal cases, they could be tried only by the European Judges. In reality, total equality before law was not implemented. But it did bring about national equality among Indians.

Administrative System - The main aim of the British administration in India was the maintenance of law and order and the perpetuation of the British rule. The three main

pillars of the British administration in India were:-

#  the civil service

#  the Army, and

#  the Police

Civil Service - Assignment   

The Amy and the Police - 

The bulk of the Company's army consisted of Indian soldiers. In 1857 the Indians constituted about 86% of the total strength of the Company's army. The army played a crucial role in the expansion of British domination over the Indian rulers. However, after the conquest over India was over and after the elimination of rival foreign powers, the main task of the army was to keep India under subjection. A secondary task was to fight England's wars with the Russian, or the French or with Indian neighboring countries.

The third Pillar of the British administration was ‘Police’ which was created by Cornwallis. Till then, the function of the Police was performed-by Zamindar through their armed retainers. They were now stripped off their power, their armed retainers were disbanded and in its place, a police force was set up. This force was entirely at the command of the government of the East India Company. This force was grouped into Thanas, headed by a Daroga who was an Indian. These thanas were initially under the general supervision of the District Judge but later the post of District Superintendent of Police was created to head the police organization in the district. Finally, the police force was handed over to the civil service and the collector in the district also controlled the police. The main task of the police was to handle crime, maintain law and order and also to prevent conspiracy against the British rule. Later, in the 20th century, the police were employed in a big way to suppress the growing national movement.  

Civil Services -  The main job of the civil service was to apply the law and the collection of revenue. The term 'civil services' was used, for the first time by the East India Company mainly to demarcate its civilian employees from their military counterparts. The service was initially the only commercial in nature but was later transformed into public service. Initially, the method of recruitment in the Civil Services was through the system of patronage in the hands of the court of Directors who were free to nominate their sons and nephews for the services. The idea of 'competition' for recruitment (as against nomination practiced earlier) was introduced for the first time by the Charter Act of 1833. But it was to be a very limited competition and could be termed as nomination-cum-competition for recruitment. But gradually the demand for open Public competition started gaining ground. The Charter Act of 1853 ultimately took away the power of the court of Directors to make nominations and thus it was thrown open to competition. 

       The Chief Officer in the district was the collector who was initially responsible for the collection of revenue. He had the authority to decide all disputes related to the boundary and the rent. He was assisted by a Tehsildar who was an Indian. After the reforms of 1831, the offices of the Magistrate and the local chief of Police were also transferred to him. This gave him total authority in the district. Given the large size of some of the districts, a post of Deputy Collector, placed between the Collector and the Tehsildar in the hierarchy was also created after 1831. This was soon converted into an uncovenanted post which meant that experienced Indians could be employed as Deputy Collectors.

The Indian Civil Services in years to come developed into one of the most efficient and powerful civil services in the world. Its members played a very crucial role in the framing of the British Policies in India and also in maintaining and running the mighty British empire in India. The result was a network of laws applicable throughout the country and a vast administrative structure to implement the laws.

EHI - 5

Block 6
9th Part

Q  Discuss the Government of India Act of 1858.              12

Q  Discuss the nature of the Government of India Act, 1858. 12

Q  Explain the features and significance of the Government of India Act, 1858.       12

A   As the Charter Act of 1853 did not give the East India Company the right to govern India for another 20 years, it gave an opportunity to the Home Government to step in and take the responsibility in the place of the East India Company in India. This process was further hastened by the happenings of 1857 'Mutiny'. 

Features - 

Due to the Government of India Act of 1858 - 

# The Government of India passed from the hands of the English East India Company to the crown. The armed forces of the company were transferred to the crown.

#  The Board of control and court of Directors were abolished. Their place was taken by the Secretary of State of India and his India Council. They were to govern India in the name of her majesty. The Secretary of State was to sit in Parliament. He was a cabinet minister of England and as such was responsible to Parliament. Ultimate power over India remained with Parliament of England.

#  The Act created an India council of fifteen members. It was to advise the Secretary of State on matters, who had the power to overrule its decisions. Approval of the Council was essential in financial matters. Most of the members of the Indian Council were those who had retired from Indian services and as such has experience to work in India.

#  The Secretary of State was given the power of sending and receiving secret messages & despatches from the Governor-General without the necessity of communicating them to the India Council. The Secretary of State was to present a report periodically to the House of Commons on the moral and material progress of India.

#  The Government of India in its dealings with England was guided by the directions laid down by the Secretary of State. All matters concerning legislation, land revenue, public works, railways, jobs, new expenditure, and policies were rigidly scrutinized and controlled by the Secretary of State. The Rules and Regulations made in India by the secretary of state were to be laid on the table of the House of Commons.

Significance - 

The Governor-General became known from now as the Viceroy or Crown's representative. In matters of policy formation and its execution, the viceroy was reduced to a subordinate position in relation to the British Government. The Government of India was finally directly under the control of London.

Q  What are the differences between the Charter Act of 1833 and 1853?            12

Q  Write a note on the charter Act of 1833.                              12

A  Charter Act of 1833 - 

The British East India Company was to have only political functions. The President of the Board of-Control became the minister for Indian affairs. The Directors of the Company were to act as expert advisors of the President of the Board of Control. The Board of Control was given the authority to superintend, direct and control the affairs of the Company relating to the revenues of the Indian territory.

   The Governor-General of Bengal became the Governor-General of India. The Governor-General in Council was given the authority to superintend, direct and control the civil and military affairs of the Company. Bombay, Bengal, Madras and other regions were now under the complete control of the Governor-General in Council. 

The Central Government was to have complete control over raising of revenues and expenditure. The expenses of the Provincial Governments, creation of new offices, and obedience of all members of the Government of Bombay, Madras were under the strict control of the Central Government.

     By the Act of 1833, the Governor-General in Council was given the authority to legislate for the whole of the British territories in India. These laws were applicable to all persons, British or Indian, foreigners or others and to the servants of the Company. These laws were enforceable by all courts of law in India. The Act of 1833, added one more member to the Executive council of the Governor-General, the Law Member. The work of the law member was fully legislative. He had no vote in the Council and he was to attend meetings, on the invitation. 

         Bombay and Madras were to keep their separate armies under the Commanders-in-Chief. They were to be under the control of the Central Government. The Act provided for the codification of laws in India. There were different types of laws in India before 1833. There were the English Acts, Presidency Regulations, Hindu Law, Muslim Law, Customary Law, etc. By this Act, the Governor-General was empowered to appoint the Law Commission to study, collect and codify laws in India. The Indian Penal Code and Civil laws and Criminal Law were enacted by the efforts of the Indian Law Commission. 

        The Charter Act of 1833 made no provision to secure the nomination of Indians to the covenanted services of the company.

Charter Act of 1853 -    

By the Act of 1853, the separation of the executive and the legislative functions went a step further. There was a provision of including additional members to the council for the purpose of the legislation. 

The Law Member was made a full member of the Executive Council of the Governor-General. The consent of the Governor-General was made necessary for all legislative proposals. In this framework, the central legislature was completed. The Central Legislative Council was to consist of one representative from each of the Provinces. Measures related to the province were to be considered in the presence of representatives from that province. The Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Calcutta became the ex-officio member of the Central Legislative Council. Two more civilians might be nominated by the Governor-General, but this authority was never exercised.

The Council in its legislative capacity was to consist of 12 members. These included the Governor-General, Commander-in-Chief, four members of his council and six legislative members. 

All vacancies in India were to be filled in by competitive examinations. Lord Macaulay was appointed the President of the Committee. The number of Directors was reduced from 24 to 18. Six of them were to be nominated by the Crown. The Company was allowed to retain possessions of the Indian territories.   

Q  What were the main features of the Charter Act of 1813?  
          A        Inquiries into the Company's affairs were ordered before another renewal of the Charter which was due in 1813. In 1808, the House of Commons appointed a Committee to investigate into the affairs of the company. Its report on judicial and police arrangements was submitted in 1812. The government decided to allow British subjects access to India with their ships. 

The Home Government had specifically directed the Government of India not to follow the policy of conquests. However, the aggressive policies adopted by the company resulted in the acquisition of more territories in India. Lord Wellesley and Hastings continued to follow an imperialistic policy. The Company's power had spread to the whole of India except Punjab, Nepal, and Sind. Company requested for financial help from the Parliament due to overspending in wars and setback in trade. There was also a lot of agitation in Britain against the continuance of commercial monopoly granted to the East India Company. Independent merchants demanded the end of this policy. They wanted a share in the trade with India. The teachings of Adam Smith and his school during this time was dominating the politics of Britain. The Reformists, the Evangelicals, and the Traditionalists tried to influence British politics and policies towards British India. Their foremost interest was to safeguard the stability of the Empire.

The Act of 1813 renewed the Company's Charter for 20 years, but it asserted the

sovereignty of the British Crown over the territories held by the Company in India. The Company was allowed to have territorial possessions for another 20 years. The Company was deprived of its monopoly of trade with India. It was allowed to continue with its monopoly of trade with China for 20 years. The Indian trade was thrown open to all British merchants.  

Q  Pitt's India Act, 1784                                                    6

A  The purpose of the Pitt’s act was to remove the defects in the Regulating Act. The Company's public affairs and its administration in India were to come directly under the supreme control of the British Government. The right of the Company to territorial possessions was however not touched. The Act established a Board of Control whose function was to guide and control the work of the Court of Directors and the Government of India. They were to control all civil and military matters of the British territories in India.

     The Act established the principle that the government of India is placed under the Governor-General and a Council of three. The Act clearly stated that the Presidencies of Madras and Bombay were subordinate to the Presidency of Bengal in all matters of war, diplomatic relations and revenues. It helped in uniting India by giving supreme power to Governor-General over the Governors of Presidencies. The possessions of the Company in India came under the supremacy of the British Parliament. The Pitt’s Act laid the foundation of a centralized administration.

Q  Regulating Act of 1773                                                  6

A  The Regulating Act was passed by the British parliament to control the Company's Administration. Changes were made in the Constitution of the Court of Directors of the Company. It was required that it should submit to the Government all communications it has received from Bengal about civil and military affairs and revenues of India. In the field of executive government, the status of Governor of Bengal was raised to Governor-General.   The Governor-General in Council was given the authority to superintend and control the presidencies of Madras and Bombay in matters of war and peace. 

The Governors of Madras & Bombay were required to send information regularly to the Governor-General, regarding the government, revenues or interests of the Company. The Governor-General, in turn, was under the direct control of the Court of Directors and kept it fully informed about the affairs or interests of the Company. The Act provided for the establishment of a Supreme Court of Justice at Calcutta. Legislative powers were granted to the Governor-General and Council to make rules. 

Q  Analyse the changes in the colonial policy towards sati and widow-remarriage during the early 19th century.  12

Q  Discuss the British policy on sati and infanticide in India. 12

Q  Briefly discuss the British policy towards 'Sati' in the early 19th century.         12

A  Infanticide - The first traditional social evil custom which was suppressed by the British Indian government was the practice of infanticide. Female infanticide was prevalent in many parts of India. The difficulty and expenses incurred in marrying girls amongst the different communities in society gave rise to the practice of killing female infants by starvation or poisoning. Jonathan Duncan, the Resident of Benares was the first official who tried to curb this social evil. Instead of unilaterally abolishing infanticide by legislation Duncan met the local Rajkumars and convinced them that the killing of female infants went against the tenets of Hindu scriptures. As the female children were considered an economic liability to their families Duncan promised monetary compensation from the Government if the Rajkurnars abandoned this practice. 

        Around the same time, the Calcutta magistrates sent a letter to the Vice-President in-Council stating that infanticide had never enjoyed sanction under the Mughal or the British governments. They also mentioned that no public opposition was encountered when the police prevented infanticide. Ultimately a law banning infanticide was enacted as Regulation VI of 1802. The abolition of infanticide which appears to have been effective in Bengal did not result in any significant opposition by the public.

Sati - Sati practice was widespread in all the three Presidencies at the beginning of the 19th century. A large number of such incidents were reported from the lower districts of Bengal. Widow burning was practiced not only by the Brahmans but also by other castes. However, in proportion to the total population, the incidence of Sati was very limited. As early as 1795 Colebrook demonstrated that this practice wasn’t sanctioned in Vedic tradition. In the past, a number of Indian rulers including Akbar, Jahangir, Guru Amardas, the Maratha chief Ahalya-bai, the Peshwas, the King of Tanjore and the Portuguese in Goa tried to discourage this practice in their respective areas. 

        However, no sustained and systematic effort was made to suppress this inhuman practice until the 19th century. While the other European companies in Bengal had banned widow burning in their territories, the Calcutta Supreme Court disallowed it only in one part of the city. The British government was also reluctant and hesitated in using coercion to stop this practice. In 1819 and 1821 two Judges of the Supreme Court pleaded for immediate

suppression of Sati arguing that such a measure would not result in any serious public resentment. This plea was however rejected by the government. 

       While the government dragged its feet over this issue, some Indian social reformers led by Ram Mohan Roy spearheaded an agitation for the abolition of Sati. In 1818 he sent a petition to the government urging them to abolish this practice and counter the demand of orthodox Hindus who were against the abolition of Sati. A vigilance committee was organized to strictly implement the age restrictions on the practice of Sati. Rammohan engaged in a debate with the supporters of Sati and wrote pamphlets and newspaper articles to mobilize public opinion against these customs. He used his journal Sambad Kaumudi to further his campaign, with papers like Samachar Darpan supporting him.

       In spite of the mounting demand for its abolition in India and Britain parliament, the company authorities in England did not want to take any decision themselves as they feared public reaction. Finally, it was abolished in 1829 through legislation by Governor-General Bentinck. The abolition of widow-burning by the government did not result in any visible anger or resentment among the Indians.