FST - 1

3rd Part

Q.  Briefly state how society influences scientific development. 

A.  The theories of science are also influenced by the general intellectual atmosphere in which the scientists work. It often happens that a theory that fits into the general intellectual atmosphere and so is accepted universally, impedes further scientific advance. New theories based on newly discovered facts may be radically different from the existing ones. Therefore they come into conflict with the prevailing ideas and social thought.  This conflict has in the past lead to the persecution of scientists. For instance, in the seventeenth century, Galileo used a telescope to see and to show others that the moons of the planet Jupiter revolved around it. This was very much like what he was proposing: that the earth revolved around the sun. He could also show that there were hills and valleys on the surface of the moon.  But these ideas were against the prevailing concepts that the sun revolved around the earth and God had created the perfectly spherical moon. This new theory when published led to the trial of Galileo. Nevertheless, history shows that barring a few exceptions new ideas in science overcame opposition and came to be accepted in due course of time. This not only leads to great leaps in science but also molded the intellectual thinking in general.

Q.  Describe the characteristic features of scientific knowledge. 

A.  Scientific knowledge is never at a standstill. It is a dynamic and ongoing process. It is an ever-growing enterprise that will never end. This is because, in science, there is no single ultimate truth to be achieved after which all scientists can retire. A remarkable feature of scientific knowledge is that it is never complete. The more we add to this knowledge the more questions arise about the unknown mysteries of nature. New information is thus continuously gathered, New theories arise if new facts cannot be explained by the existing ones. Practitioners of science can never lay claim to complete or ultimate knowledge. We have seen that science is not static. Going a step further we may say that scientific knowledge is also not immutable. Nothing can remain unchallenged in science. In fact, some of the most honored scientists are those, who try to alter modify or replace existing theories by providing revolutionary evidence or argument. In this sense science is a self-correcting enterprise i.e. it is open to change. Many hypotheses proposed by scientists turned out to be wrong. Science is generated by an idea of free inquiry, the idea that any hypothesis no matter how strange, deserves to be considered on its merits. Thus science is not dogmatic. It does not unreasonably insist on standing by preconceived notions, concepts ideas that have been proved wrong through careful experimentation. Science progresses by disproving. It has no high priests who cannot be questioned. What would be considered highly undesirable in science is the unquestioned acceptance of things as they are. Last but not the least scientific knowledge is objective. That is, scientific results are verifiable and repeatable by anyone anywhere if proper facilities are available. All new ideas must survive the rigorous standard of evidence. Sometimes it takes years, or even hundreds of years before the ideas are verified. Nonetheless, in the long run, no brilliant arguments, high authority or aesthetic appeal can save a scientific theory that disagrees with the experiment or observation of nature.

Q.  Describe the technical achievements during the Bronze Age. 

A.  The major technical advance was the discovery and use of metals, particularly copper and its alloy bronze. 

Use of Metals

With the development of fire kilns, copper metal was produced from copper ores. Later, an alloy of copper and tin was discovered. It was harder and stronger than copper and could be cast into tools and weapons. Some of the tools thus made were found to be far superior to stone tools and weapons, and were easier to produce. The use of this new metal meant a revolution in many techniques, such as carpentry, masonry, making tools, vessels, vases, etc.

Transport 

Trade flourished during this period between different regions. When river transport was extended to the sea for long voyages, it posed new problems of boat construction and navigation. Stronger winds meant stronger fabrics for making sail, and construction of heavy frames and structures to hold them. Besides sea trade, advances took place in inland transport and trade. The use of the wheel for running carts that transported goods and passengers was possibly one of the most significant developments of the Bronze Age. This revolutionized transportation and greatly enhanced the mobility of men and material.

Quantitative Science

With the availability of surplus in agriculture and the production of non-agricultural goods by craftsmen, exchange and trade became a part of life. The problem now was the unavailability of standardized measuring units for weight, length, etc. Gradually, symbols were introduced to cover actions as well as objects and so writing emerged. The standardization of exchange in the form of weight emerged too. Similarly, the exchange also necessitated simple calculations such as addition and subtraction of numbers, which led to arithmetic. The use of bricks for building houses gave rise to the ideas of the right angle, and the straight line, which led to the birth of what we call geometry. The practice of building in brick also gave rise to the concept of areas and volumes of figures and solids, which could be calculated from the lengths of their sides. At first, only the volume of rectangular blocks could be estimated. The ability to count and calculate found immediate use in certain other areas such as the making of calendars and in the consequent development of astronomy.   

               Another occupation that came to be very prestigious with the growth of cities was that of medicine. Although the practice of medicine was limited to treating wounds, dislocations, fractures, etc., the practitioners could successfully diagnose many diseases. Practitioners of medicine also had knowledge of plants and mineral substances to prepare drugs for various diseases. They grew plants and herbs for this purpose. The basis for chemistry was laid during the bronze age. Jewelers, metalworkers, and potters knew about at least nine chemical elements-gold, silver, copper, tin, lead, mercury, iron, sulphur and carbon, and also about a variety of dry and liquid reagents. The process of smelting ores, of purifying metals, of coloring them, of adding enamel involving complex chemical reactions were learned by many trials and experiments during the bronze age.

Q.  Describe the developments in Indian society that led to the decline of Science in the Post-Gupta period.

A. The features in Indian society led to the decline of science in the post-Gupta period were -

 i) The emergence of small fiefdoms which encouraged a self-sufficient village economy and discouraged trade.

ii) The caste system became rigid and firmly entrenched.

        The collapse of the Roman and Sassanian empires, with which India had a flourishing and profitable trade, led to a serious setback to trade and commerce. This was accompanied by the rise of small fiefdoms within the empire who were constantly on the lookout for asserting their independence. The small fiefdoms encouraged an economy in which villages or groups of villages tended to become largely self-sufficient, thus discouraging trade. The caste system again became more firmly entrenched, exalting the privileges of the Brahmins and emphasizing the social and religious disabilities of the Sudras. A large number of castes, such as potters, weavers, goldsmiths, musicians, barbers, road-makers, and others practicing similar crafts were regarded as lowly. The intellectual effort was directed towards justifying and maintaining the rigid caste system

Q.  Describe the developments in technology in the Mauryan Empire. 

A.   We get a great deal of information about the technical developments in the Maurya period from the treatise, Arthasastra. In Arthasastra. there are detailed descriptions of military machines that use the principle of centrifugal forces. There was considerable development in civil engineering. For increasing the productivity of

sita land. many forms of irrigation came to be used. Excellent roads were built throughout the empire to Facilitate mobility of the army and the traders. 

            Asoka, possibly for the first time in India. introduced stones to construct buildings. Stones were polished to a mirror-like finish and used for the construction of pillars and arches. There was some development of rural industries also. Small industries and relevant technology came into being near the sita lands for husking of grain, pressing of oilseeds, carding of cotton and wool. the spinning of yam, grading and.processing of wool, manufacture of blankets and shaping of timbers into planks and beams. The concept of factory production took shape, probably for the first time. as the above commodities were produced under the direct supervision of the superintendent. 

           The greatest contribution to the advancement of technology was. perhaps, made in the area of metallurgy and metalworking. The shifting of the seat of power from the north-west to Magadha was mainly due to the increasing demand for iron, copper. tin, lead and other metals. The metals were needed for making weapons and ploughshares. the two essential pillars of the Mauryan state. as well as for manufacturing other goods of trade. Metallurgy of making alloys was also developed. The finest of iron ores from different parts of the empire, especially the south. were brought for making alloy steels.

Q.  Bronze Age Civilisation 

A. After the Stone Age, the next period in the evolution of human society is known as the Bronze Age. It is named after the new alloy which replaced stone during this period as humans learned to produce new metal which had far-reaching positive consequences for human civilization. This period was the beginning of a new type of productive activity, namely agriculture which encouraged human settlements firstly in villages and slowly urban areas. The rise of cities and the changing socio-economic needs led to the birth of science during this period. The growth of cities brought about a change in the social organization which later affected the growth of science in Bronze Age cultures.

During the Bronze Age, the socio-economic needs of growing cities and trade between cities gave rise to many broad areas of quantitative science, such as standardization of measures, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, medicine, etc. The base for the future development of many other areas such as chemistry, algebra, anatomy and physiology, botany, etc. was also laid in this era.

Q.  Decline of the Bronze Age Civilization 

A.  a)  The emergence of two distinct groups of the producers and the appropriators. 

b)  Invasions by nomadic barbarians.

c)  Increase in population, leading to pressure on cities.

           There arose a division between those who produced and those who appropriated the produce. This also meant a division between the thinkers and the doers, between theory and practice. Eventually, the social structure became exploitative. Peasants and urban craftsmen became poorer, many of them ending up as slaves later on. The emergence of two distinct classes, the haves and the have nots, in the society, led to conflicts between them. This weakened the city-states and ultimately put a stop to their intellectual and technical progress.

           The increasing population was another major problem faced during this time period which had negative consequences as the resources were not sufficient to feed the ever-increasing population leading to social tensions. Another factor was the continuous barbarian invasions which also brought tremendous pressure on these city cultures. They had to expand territorially to occupy more available land, in order to feed the population. They also had to raise armies and fortifications to defend themselves.

Q.  Why was the Roman phase of the Iron Age marked by stagnation of Science? 

A.  By the first century B.C., the Romans had organized themselves into a powerful military dictatorship, with popular support. The army went on to conquer the countries of eastern and western Mediterranean as well as Britain, western Germany, and Austria. While the army became all-powerful, the land was ruled by slave owners and wealthy merchants. The cementing force of the empire was the army, as it was used by the emperor to collect enough taxes to keep the soldiers from mutinying and choosing another emperor. The best land was cultivated by the slave gangs from the villas of the wealthy, while the poorer areas were left to the pagan natives or to newly settled free slaves from the villas. Thus, the mainstay of the economy was loot from the empire by military coercion, and agriculture by slaves. In such a situation, it is, perhaps, not surprising that there was very little demand to increase production and to improve the economy through the applications of

new techniques. 

         While there was no improvement in techniques and no growth of science in the Roman era, the existing knowledge was applied to construct buildings for civil and military administration. Burnt bricks and concrete made from volcanic ash and lime were used to construct roads, harbors, aqueducts, baths & theatres Accumulation of power and wealth in the hands of a few rich men, and general brutalization and consequent impoverishment of a population of slaves lowered the demand for commodities. This depressed the conditions of merchants and craftsmen still further. With no incentive for science to develop new techniques, science lost its essential quality of inquiring into nature. As the Roman Empire was followed by the serf-owning feudal economy of Europe, this state of cultured stagnation continued till the fifteenth century.

Q.  What were the different methods of production used by the primitive society and the Bronze Age Civilization?

A.  Food gathering and hunting in the primitive society; agriculture, masonry, carpentry and other crafts in the Bronze Age Civilisation.

Q.  List the socio-economic needs that led to the advances in techniques in the early phase of the growth of cities.

A.  The need for having better tools for agriculture, houses for shelter, pottery for storage, carts, and boats for transport and trade, planned layout, etc. in growing cities, led to the advances in techniques.

Q.  In what ways were these needs fulfilled by the technical advances of those times?

A.  By the technical advances in pottery, metal-working, masonry, carpentry, brick - working, boat-making, stone-working, etc.

Q.  The growth of cities and the technical advances eventually led to the formation of two distinct groups-the producers and the appropriators. What was the difference between the two groups?

A. The producers like farmers, masons, wheelwrights, carpenters, etc. were themselves involved in the production of goods; the appropriators did not produce goods themselves, they cornered other people's produce.

                  

Q.   What was the difference between the socio-political organization of the state during the Maurya and the Gupta periods?

A.   The state was highly centralized in the Maurya period, whereas in the Gupta period the rigid state control was relaxed and individual initiative was encouraged.

Q.  Which unscientific practice led to the decline of astronomy in India?

A.  The unscientific practice of treating astrology at the same level as astronomy.

Aryabhatta - the earth rotates and the heavens are still.

           Eclipses are caused by the shadows of the earth or moon.

Varahamihira -  The earth is motionless and the sun, moon and the planets move around it.

 Eclipses are caused by the shadows of the earth or moon.

Brahmagupta - Eclipses are caused by Rahu and Ketu.

              The earth is motionless and the sun, moon and the planets move around it.

Q.  Which primitive practice reflects the features of designing and planning that characterize modem science?

A. The toolmaker first thought of what tool he was going to make (design) and how he was going to do it (plan). Then he took a large chunk of stone and shaped it accordingly.

Q.  How did the use of clothing and domestication of animals affect the primitive society?

A.  The use of clothing enabled primitive human beings to withstand cold weather. The domestication of animals increased their mobility and also the availability of food. Thus, the primitive society could hope to survive even in adverse conditions.

Stone Age - The major development at this stage was the invention of master tools: the implements to make implements. This created the possibility of producing many different types of implements than could be simply selected or picked up from nature.

Bronze Age - We have seen that the socio-economic needs of growing cities and trade between cities gave rise to many broad areas of quantitative science, such as standardization of measures, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, medicine, etc. The base for the future development of many other areas such as chemistry, algebra, anatomy and physiology, botany, etc. was also laid in this era.

Q.  a) In a given society,

i) what factors decide the broad areas of scientific activity?

A.  The broad areas of scientific activity in society are decided by its socioeconomic conditions and the prevailing ideological atmosphere. For instance, if, in a society, it is more important to provide for the basic needs of the people, science will be used to first satisfy these needs. But, if a society thrives on market economy, it will promote scientific activity in areas which increase

the profits such as making weapons or consumer products like fancy electronic gadgets etc.

ii)  what areas of activity set the specific goals for science to achieve?

A.  The specific areas such as trade, health, resource mapping and management, agriculture, industry, transport, communication, military activity, etc. set the specific goals for science to achieve.

b) What are the conditions that determine whether the fruits of science are used for human good or for destructive purposes?

A.  The use or misuse of science depends on, who the dominating groups in society are and what their interests are. These things are also determined by the particular period of time, in which a society exists and functions.

c)  Who in the society, should decide about the purpose and scope of science?

A.  The vast majority of common people like us should decide, for what purposes and how science should be used in society. For example, in our society, science should be used not only to make and launch satellites, build nuclear reactors, or send expeditions to Antarctica but also to provide basic necessities, like clean

drinking water, food, shelter, etc., and to improve the quality of life by providing suitable health-care, better transport, electricity, etc.

Q.  Ways in which the growth of science influences the production process in a society.

A.  The growth of science in a society leads to

i) an increase in production like electricity revolutionized production process.(elaborate further), steamships, airplanes

ii) an improvement in the methods of production such as improved tools, machines, computers, etc., in the present-day society. 

FST - 1

2nd Part

Q.  State two innovations made in the field of technology in Medieval India.  

A.  Astronomy and Physical Sciences

Astronomy was used not only for working out the calendar, the dates of the eclipses and for the determination of time but also for casting horoscopes for astrological purposes. The astrolabes made in India during this period were highly accurate. Raja Jai Singh established observatories at a number of places, such as Delhi Jaipur, Ujjain, Benaras, and Mathura. He paid special attention to the instruments of observation. A noticeable feature was the construction of large-sized observational instruments for fixing the time and determining latitudes. He succeeded in compiling fairly accurate astronomical tables, rectifying the calendar and in making more accurate predictions of eclipses.

Geography

Geography was another science where development took place. The astrolabes helped determine more accurate latitudes. A big advance was made in the field of cartography when in 1647 Sadiq Isfahani prepared an encyclopedic work that contained a World Atlas. The maps prepared by him, particularly of India, were fairly accurate in representing India as a peninsula and adding Sri Lanka at its southern tip. Rivers were sparingly shown.

Chemistry

In the field of metallurgy, there was a remarkable development. Before the close of the sixteenth century, zinc was isolated by a process known neither to the Arab civilization nor to the European(19th century). The isolation of zinc was accompanied by another achievement namely the manufacture of brass, an alloy of copper and zinc. Tin-coating of copper and brass learned from the Arab world became prevalent in medieval India, thereby enabling copper vessels to be more widely used. Soldering, particularly of gold on agates, crystals and other brittle materials, was done so efficiently, as to earn commendation from European travelers.

Medicine

The Greek (Unani) system of medicine in India arrived with the Muslims. However, there was no mutual exchange between it and the already existing Indian system of Ayurveda. The two systems remained separate. Miyan Behwa (about 1500 A.D.) wrote an important work on medicine Tibbi-i Sikandar Shahi, based on a number of Ayurvedic sources that are explicitly mentioned.

Q.  Describe the impact of freedom movement on the developments in science in pre-independence India.  

A.  By the early twentieth century, Indian society had started witnessing the first stirrings for freedom from colonial rule. While their political aspirations led to a demand for self-rule, the frustration resulting from economic stranglehold found expression in their insistence on using only goods made in India. Swadeshi Movement provided further impetus for :

i) promotion of education along national lines and under national control with special reference to science and technology,

ii) industrialization of the country.

In 1904, an Association for the Advancement of Scientific and Industrial Education of Indians was formed. The objective was to send qualified students to Europe, America, and Japan for studying science-based industries. In its third session (1887), the Indian National Congress took up the question of technical education and has since then passed resolutions on it every year. K.T. Telang and B.N. Seal pointed out how, in the name of technical education, the government was merely imparting lower forms of practical training. The Indian Medical Service was also severely criticized. In 1893, Congress passed a resolution asking the government "to raise a scientific medical profession in India by throwing open fields for medical and scientific work to the best talent available and indigenous talent in particular." Whether it be education, agriculture or mining, Congress touched several problems under its wide sweep.

           These efforts had, nonetheless, a galvanizing effect. Taking advantage of the University Act of 1904, which allowed the existing Indian universities to organize teaching and research instead of merely affiliating colleges, Sir Asutosh Mookherjee took the initiative of establishing a University College of Science in Calcutta. Eminent scientists such as P.C. Ray, C.V. Raman, S.N. Bose, and K.S. Krishnan taught there. This very college, although starved financially all through, produced a group of physicists and chemists who received international recognition. Many institutes were set up. For example, the Bose Institute (1917), Sheila Dhar Institute of Soil Science (1936), Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeobotany, etc. This gave further impetus to scientific activity in India.

Q.  Describe the notable contributions in science during Freedom Movement. 

A.  Those who put India on the scientific map of the world were many. J.C. Bose showed that animal and plant tissues display electric responses under different kinds of stimuli, like pricking, heat, etc. S.Ramanujan, an intuitive mathematical genius contributed a lot to number theory. P.C. Ray analyzed a number of rare Indian minerals and started the Bengal Chemical and Pharmaceutical Works, a pioneering and pace-setting organization in the field of indigenous chemical and pharmaceutical industry. C.V. Raman's research on the scattering of light later won him the Nobel Prize in 1930. K.S. Krishnan did thedretical work on the electric resistance of metals. S.N. Bose's collaboration with Einstein on the study of elementary particles led to what is known as the Bose- Einstein Statistics. D.N. Wadia worked in the field of geology, Birbal Sahni in palambotany, P.C. Mahalanobis in statistics, and S.S. Bhatnagar in chemistry. Another major development was the establishment of the Indian Science Congress Association (ISCA) in 1914 with the following objectives :

#  to give a stronger impulse and a more systematic direction to scientific inquiry,

#  to promote the interaction of societies and individuals interested in science in different parts of the country, to obtain more general attention to the cause of pure and applied sciences.

Q.  Briefly mention the development of implements and tools during the Stone Age. 

A. Stones were shaped to suit a specific purpose like digging, throwing or scraping. Their shapes and sizes became standardized over a period of time in different geographical regions. The major development at this stage, however, was the invention of master tools the implements to make implements. he created the possibility of producing many different types of implements than could be simply selected or picked up from nature. The process of making tools laid the foundation for our modem methods of casting, hammering, etc. When men made tools and used them for different tasks, they also became aware of the mechanical properties of many substances. For instance, they found out which materials were strong, which could be molded easily and which were brittle. This laid the basis of the physical sciences.

           The tools were used not only for hunting, but also provided a means of shaping and preparing softer materials such as wood, bone, and skin for decoration and art, or for protection from cold weather. Food gathering became much more efficient with the introduction of containers, baskets, and bins. Certain refinement of tools used for making hunting implements and the knowledge of how to handle soft materials led to pinning, sewing, tying, twisting, twining and weaving. These are the techniques needed for making clothes, rugs, tents, etc.

Clothes

The concept of clothes might have started even before weaving, as an extension of the practice of carrying food and implements about. Attachments with a convenient hold in the hair. around the neck, waist, wrist, and ankles might have been used. Feathers. bones and skins were often added to these attachments.

Q.  The separation of theory from practice becomes an impediment in the growth of science. Justify the statement with an example.    

A. Those who worked with their hands did not contribute to the stock of knowledge. And those who possessed even out-dated knowledge never had to test it on the touchstone of practice. The rich had no need for change, the poor had no power to bring about change. Either the kingdoms fought wars or settled down to long periods of peace. It seems natural to think that in such a society there was no clamor to develop new products or new processes. Social stability and stagnation can easily go hand in hand. 

Q.  With the help of an appropriate example, explain various aspects of the method of science.                   

Q.  What factors decide the broad areas of scientific activity?   

A. The scientific method is a systematic way of learning about the world around us and answering questions. The key difference between the scientific method and other ways of acquiring knowledge is forming a hypothesis and then testing it with an experiment. The various aspects of the method of science are - 

Observation 

It is an important aspect of science. Our everyday experiences arising from what we see, hear, touch, taste, and smell, form a part of common knowledge. For example, we observe that the sun rises in the east and sets in the west; a ball when thrown up comes down. In science, we go beyond just the common observation and experience and try to understand how a phenomenon occurs and why it occurs. Therefore, a scientist has to be clear about 'what' to observe and 'how' to observe it. These systematic observations are then put in order, i.e. classified, carefully recorded in the

form of tables or graphs and analyzed. The aim is to discover regularities and patterns in the factual information obtained. 

Questions - 

A number of questions may be posted on the basis of the observations, data, facts, and figures. The importance of questioning cannot be undermined. Science progresses by asking questions and finding their answers.

Hypothesis

Experiments

The experiment is an essential feature of modem science. Experiments are artificially created or contrived situations designed to make certain observations under strictly controlled conditions. The objective sometimes is to mimic nature. This allows the complexity of natural phenomena to be simplified for step by step study. Cause and effect relationships are studied through a great variety of experiments. Great ingenuity and care are required in designing experiments so that maximum information and clearcut results may be obtained from them. The results of such experiments prove or disprove a particular hypothesis. Sometimes, a hypothesis may have to be rejected outright and a new hypothesis framed to explain the results obtained from the experiment. At other times, experiments provide additional data for refinement or modification of a hypothesis.

Laws, Models, and Theories

From the observations and the results of experiments comes a good deal of scientific knowledge. But scientific knowledge is not simply a list of such results. The results are tied up and related to each other in the form of logical, coherent theories or laws. In general, a relationship between things covering the results of observations and experiments over a wide range of individual cases is called a law. Hypotheses are accepted as 'laws' only if they are supported by great deal of experimental evidence and there are no known exceptions to them.

           Often scientists create a model to simulate the object, phenomenon or situation they study. A model is an artificial construction to represent the properties, behavior or any other features of the real object under study. Models are useful because these represent in a simpler & familiar manner, a new complicated object, situation or phenomenon. A theory is a set of a few general statements that can correctly describe or explain all experimental observations about the properties and behavior of a large number of varied objects, phenomena, situations or systems. 

Example - 

We have taken this example from the history of science. In the seventeenth century, miners and well diggers observed that it was impossible to raise water more than about thirty-two feet, through ordinary hand pumps. Galileo thought that a water column higher than this was unable to bear its weight. His pupil Torricelli (1608-47) proposed another hypothesis, that the rise of water in a pump was due to the pressure exerted by the air in the atmosphere. He reasoned that if the rise of the water was due to atmospheric pressure alone, then any other liquid would rise only up to a certain height. He then calculated mathematically, that a column of mercury would rise up to a height of thirty inches. To test this, he set up a simple experiment taking mercury in a dish and inverting a glass tube filled with mercury on it. Mercury did not rise above thirty inches, proving Torricelli's hypothesis. Thus, the barometer was invented (Fig. 8.7). It is an instrument to measure atmospheric pressure. Fig. 8.7: Barometer. It is also known that high up in the mountains, the atmospheric pressure is lower than that at sea level. To further verify Torricelli's hypothesis, Pascal took the barometer up a mountain where the level of mercury fell. This showed that the low atmospheric pressure supported a lower height of the mercury column. Thus, it provided further confirmation of Torricelli's explanation.

Q.  Discuss the features of social organization in the Gupta Empire that greatly improved science and technology. 

A. Three features of the social organization in the Gupta Empire, that led to a great improvement in science and technology.

 i) State control was greatly relaxed and individual initiative was encouraged.

ii) In general, instead of one's lineage, property status and what one did in society

became important.

iii) The importance of agricultural and craft production led to an improvement in the condition of manual-workers like peasants and Sudras.

Gupta period is considered the peak of the Golden Age of Science. In the Gupta empire, the main mode of production was still agriculture. The Gupta kings continued the land acquisition started by the Mauryans. Samudragupta conquered a number of forest kingdoms in the valleys of the Ganges, Narmada, and Mahanadi. The pattern of land settlement in this period was, however, very different from that of the Mauryan-s. The State control and ownership of the cleared land were greatly reduced and land passed into private ownership. New laws were enacted to allow individuals to administer land and collect taxes, irrespective of whether they tilled the land or not. Most of the Gupta kings, irrespective of their individual religious faith, were secular as far as the state was concerned. Buddhism, Jainism and traditional Hindu institutions were all supported by the state through grants and patronage.

            Lineage which had determined one's position in society, gave way, to a certain extent, to one's property status. Thus, Brahmins lost its preeminence. The importance of agricultural and craft production led to an improvement in the condition of the Sudras. During this time, what one did in society became important rather than his birth. As a result of it, even Brahmins were obliged to take up occupations other than the performance of religious rites. This relaxation of rigid state control had a liberating influence as it encouraged individual initiative. It led to the decline in the hold of the Brahmins and that of the rigid 'varna' system over agricultural society.

Crafts

Rapid strides were made during this era in metallurgical and weaving crafts. Rustproof of iron and copper alloys were found and worked into intricate articles for civilians as well as military purposes. The quality of the articles was so good that they were widely exported, even as far as Africa.

Agriculture

Pepper and spices were grown for export as well as domestic consumption. A wide variety of crops like rice, wheat, barley, sesame, pulses, beans and lentils, vegetables such as cucumbers, onions, garlic, pumpkin, and betel were grown. New fruits like pears and peaches were introduced for the first time. All this did not take place at random or as a matter of chance. There were proper manuals that gave information on the type and quality of soil required for each plant, various plant diseases, the distances between plants as well as sowing techniques.

Textiles and Trade

In weaving, techniques were perfected for the making of cotton and silk materials. Manufacture of dyes and their widespread use in coloring textiles came into practice. Indian textile materials, especially from Varanasi and Bengal became famous for their lightweight and fine texture. The textiles became popular in the West and became an important commodity for export and trade. For merchants, just as for artisans, there existed associations which were also known as shrenis. The main trade routes were based around the rivers Ganges and Indus.

Q.  Briefly discuss the advances in the areas of science in India during Iron-Age. 

A.  This period witnessed significant advances in many areas of science like astronomy, geometry, mechanics, chemistry, botany, zoology, metallurgy &medicine. 

Astronomy and Mathematics 

As mentioned in Sulvasutras people had a high level of knowledge of geometry. Arithmetic was equally well developed. Numbers in multiples of 10 going up to as high powers of 10, as 1012 (one million million), were known and used. All the arithmetic operations on numbers were also known. Sulvasutras contain several instances of addition, subtraction, multiplication, division and squaring of fractions. Quadratic equations, indeterminate equations, permutations, and combinations.

Chemistry 

Objects found at various Iron Age sites included pottery, iron tools, and glass objects. By the fifth or the fourth century B.C., the Indian metalworkers had attained a high degree of perfection in the techniques of producing iron and steel. Glass objects, Ceramic bowls, dishes, lids and carinated jars ('handis') dated from about the sixth century B.C. to the second century B.C.. were also found in these sites. Fermentation methods, dyeing techniques, the preparation and use of a number of chemicals and color pigments were well known. 

Botany

As agriculture was the principal mode of production during Iron Age, botany and elementary plant physiology developed with the advances made in agriculture. The developments in medicine also helped these sciences. 

Zoology

A survey of Vedic literature has revealed that more than 260 animals were known at that time. Classification of animals and study of their dietary value had been attempted. Human physiology had also been studied during this time.

Developments in Medicine

Punarvasu Atreya (about 6th century B.C.) taught medicine at Taxila. Each of his disciples such as Bhela, Jatukarna, Harita, Ksarapani, Parasara wrote treatises on medicine. Atreya himself, Patanjali (about 2nd century B.C.) and later many others wrote commentaries on what is considered to be the main Indian treatise on medicine, the Caraka-Samhita. The origin of Caraka-Samhita, ana the surgical text

Susruta-Samhita is generally estimated to be around 600 B.C. There is is a meticulous classification and documentation of symptoms of various ailments, corresponding healing systems, their properties, methods of application and their dosages. The treatises are so important because

i) they are scientific in their approach and method,

ii) they have an influence on the development of other branches of science such as chemistry and botany, and

iii) they are transmitted through the ages in a form of practice known as Ayurveda.

Q.  Explain why the Ayurvedic system of medicine may be considered scientific. Give reasons. 

A.  Punarvasu Atreya (about 6th century B.C.) taught medicine at Taxila. Each of his disciples such as Bhela, Jatukarna, Harita, Ksarapani, Parasara wrote treatises on medicine. Atreya himself, Patanjali (about 2nd century B.C.) and later many others wrote commentaries on what is considered to be the main Indian treatise on medicine, the Caraka-Samhita. The origin of Caraka-Samhita, ana the surgical text Susruta-Samhita is generally estimated to be around 600 B.C. There is is a meticulous classification and documentation of symptoms of various ailments, corresponding healing systems, their properties, methods of application and their dosages. The treatises are so important, because - 

i) they are scientific in their approach and method,

ii) they have an influence on the development of other branches of science such as chemistry and botany, and

iii) they are transmitted through the ages in a form of practice known as Ayurveda.

Approach and Method

Their approach and method had the following significant features:

i) The physician was interested only in one thing and that was the cure of the patient. Towards this, he was allowed to take any steps including subterfuge and lies. For example, if it was essential for the patient to eat some flesh, the physician had to work out some tactics to overcome the patient's religious or aesthetic revulsion.

ii) The physician was to direct his attention to curing the patient. Hence, he was not supposed to cause any injury to the patient even though his own life may be at stake. The physician was to treat the patient as his own son.

iii) Medical knowledge was to be acquired from previous practitioners as well as through medical discussions.

Diagnosis and Prognosis

The diagnosis and prognosis of disease were done directly by seeing, hearing, smelling and touching all external human organs and human waste and often indirectly by pulse examination. These observations. singly or in combination, were correlated in specific diseases.

Curing methods

The most important curing methods were classified under five heads, namely, inducing vomiting, giving purgative, enema, oily enema, and nasal therapy. Specific applications of these were made according to the disease. Possible accidents during their application were also listed. There was also an extensive classification of diseases. Healing substances were classified as preventive and curative medicines.

Surgery

Susruta-Samhita, a.major treatise on surgery, was derived not only from exhaustive observation of symptoms of diseases and their possible treatments but also a fairly detailed knowledge of human physiology, anatomy, and especially the internal organs. For example, in treating ulcers or wounds, it is directed that the instruments should be introduced with the precaution of avoiding dangerous places, such as veins, bones and the like until the pus is visible. In the Samhita, there is also a detailed description of different types of iron instruments made by local smiths for extraction, cutting, etc., in terms of sharpness, shape, and size. Two interesting features of this treatise are:

i) Scrupulous attention to pre and post-surgical cleaning of the wound, implying some empirical knowledge of infection, and

ii) use of anesthetics. While instructions are given to bind the patient strongly so that he could not move during the operation, it is also mentioned that he should be given wine to drink before the operation so that he might not faint and might not feel the knife.

FST - 1

1st Part

Q.  Technical development in Feudal society   

A.  Major inventions like the horse collar, the clock, the compass gunpowder, paper, and printing were introduced from China in the feudal society in Europe that were further improved. 

1) The horse collar originated in seventh-century China & reached Europe in the eleventh century. Its use resulted in a manifold increase in the horse's ability to pull loads and work longer. Horses took the place of oxen at the plough and more acres of land could be cultivated. 

2)  The wind-mills and water-mills harnessed nature for performing mechanical work. These mills were used for grinding grains, extracting oil from seeds & drawing water from wells, thus helping agriculture. They were also used for blowing bellows, forging iron or sawing wood.

3)  There were two navigational inventions, the compass, and the sternpost rudder, that had a profound impact on sea voyages in the Middle Ages. With these two inventions, the oceans were thrown open to trade, exploration, and even war for the first time.

4) Other innovations were the lenses and the spectacles. This gave an impetus to the further study of optics. 

5) The distillation of perfumes & oils was already known in Europe through the Arabs. To this was added the distillation of alcohol, which gave rise to the first scientific industry, that of distillers, and laid the foundation of modem chemical industry.

6) Of all the innovations introduced m the West from the East, gunpowder had the greatest effect politically, economically and scientifically. With its use in cannons and handguns, gunpowder enormously altered the balance of power. The making of gunpowder, its explosion, the expulsion of the ball from the cannon and its subsequent flight led to sciences like mechanics and dynamics.

7) Two other technical introductions from the East in the West were the inventions of paper and printing.

Q.  What is the relevance of the statement,' Science and Technology were founded when humans acted to procure food and water'? 

A.   In its earliest stages, human existence revolved around food gathering and hunting. The origin of science started as a man needed to eat and to protect himself from the weather and animals. The man started looking for food in plants and trees and also dug the earth for roots. In this way, they came to know the right kind of food was, and where they could get it from. They also found out which animals were dangerous and which were not, and how to protect themselves. As time passed, the primitive tools and weapons were improved upon and regular methods for making them were established. This specialized knowledge was passed on in the form of tools and techniques from one generation to another. The use of clothing enabled primitive human beings to withstand cold weather. The domestication of animals increased their mobility and also the availability of food. Thus, the primitive society could hope to survive even in adverse conditions. On the basis of it, human society evolved as -

Stone Age

Bronze Age

Iron Age

Stone Age - The major development at this stage was the invention of master tools made up of stones:  the implements to make implements. This created the possibility of producing many different types of implements than could be simply selected or picked up from nature.

Bronze Age - We have seen that the socio-economic needs of growing cities and trade between cities gave rise to many broad areas of quantitative science, such as standardization of measures, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, medicine, etc. The base for the future development of many other areas such as chemistry, algebra, anatomy and physiology, botany, etc. was also laid in this era.

Q.  What are the conditions that determine whether the fruits of science are used for human good or for destructive purposes? 

A.  The use or misuse of science depends on, who the dominating groups in society are and what their interests are. These things are also determined by the particular period of time, in which a society exists and functions. The broad areas of scientific activity in society are decided by its socioeconomic conditions and the prevailing ideological atmosphere. For instance, if, in a society, it is more important to provide for the basic needs of the people, science will be used to first satisfy these needs. But, if a society thrives on the market economy, it will promote scientific activity in areas that increase profits such as making weapons or consumer products like fancy electronic gadgets, etc. The vast majority of common people like us should decide, for what purposes and how science should be used in society. For example, in our society, science should be used not only to make and launch satellites, build nuclear reactors, or send expeditions to Antarctica but also to provide basic necessities, like clean drinking water, food, shelter etc., and to improve the quality of life by providing suitable health-care, better transport, electricity etc.

            The specific areas of social life such as trade, 'markets' and natural resources health, etc. set definite problems for science to solve. Unfortunately, military activity has been one of the major goals for science throughout history. Such goals do not lead to and in fact pervert scientific activity. Most scientists in modern times have taken a position against such a perversion of their work. This stand taken by scientists all over the world against using space to install deadly weapons is an example of this. The fruits of scientific labor can be used for human good or they may be misused. For instance, science in a society based on private profit would lead to the production of goods which can be sold for profit rather than those which are really needed. And if weapons can be a source of profit weapons can be produced rather than the medicine for the ailing. All of us and scientists in particular need to be aware of this.   

Q.  List the socio-economic needs that led to the advances in techniques in the early phase of the growth of cities. 

A.  During the Iron Age, people understood the advantage of the river for food production. They learned that the river water could be systematically used through natural and artificial irrigation thus food production increased substantially. This led to the growth of cities when several villages came together. Further, barter trade led to some places being identified as meeting places for displaying goods and exchanging grain for cloth or spices or shopping for better tools and implements made by expert artisans.

           The growth of cities led to the rise of an administrative class who could organize and coordinate production and exchange but did not take part in it directly. A large number of people in cities started getting involved in other means of production. They could produce other useful goods and even excel in music or dance. The agricultural surplus could be used to support craftsmen who made the agricultural implements and storage vessels, masons who built shelters, wheel-wrights who made pottery, and others who made carts. There were still others who worked as administrators & priests, and who were not directly involved in the process of production. These groups of people came to live in the cities. The population of cities used to be supported by agriculture in the neighboring as well as distant villages. This resulted in a division between villages and cities. Between those who produced and those who supported production through work of other kinds; those who worked with their hands. and administrators or priests who mainly used their mental skills. This division had a very definite effect on the development of techniques and science. For the first time, specialization of occupations and professions had taken place. As there was enough food available. society could support even those who did not produce. Such people had the leisure to think to improve their crafts to create art and beauty. The surplus also had to be transported by land, rive; the land-sea in exchange for other

necessities of life and even luxury goods. This provided the tremendous impetus for the development of transport, such as rafts, boats and small ships, which brought about new dimensions of trade, cultural contact, and exchange of techniques and science among different societies.

Q.  Compare the state of science and technology during renaissance with that of the post-renaissance period in Europe.   A.  Science and Technology During Renaissance (1440- 1540)

Art-. The visual arts, such as painting and sculpture had a profound influence on the development of science. For instance, painters were required to have a thorough knowledge of geometry, so that they could represent three-dimensional figures in two dimensions. It laid the foundation of geology and natural history. The anatomy of human beings was also studied in much detail. The professions of artists, architects and engineers were not separated in the Renaissance. Artists were also civil and military engineers. 

Medicine and Technology - The human body was dissected, explored, measured and explained as an enormously complex machine. The new anatomy, physiology, and pathology were founded on direct observation and experiment.

Metals - In technology, the greatest advances of the Renaissance were in the fields of mining, metallurgy, and chemistry. With growing capitalist production, mining became a large scale operation. As mines grew deeper, pumping and hauling devices became essential. This led to a new interest in mechanical and hydraulic principles. The smelting of metals like iron, copper, zinc, bismuth, cobalt, etc., their handling and separation led to a general theory of chemistry involving oxidation and reduction, distillation and amalgamation. For the first time, metallic compounds were introduced into medicine. Other chemical substances such as alum and clay were studied to improve cloth and leather industries or to make fine pottery.

Navigation and Astronomy - Trade on land and over the seas was being taken up on a big scale. The adventure, the general excitement and ultimately, the great profitability of these voyages created great enthusiasm for building new ships and instruments for navigation. Interest in astronomy was strongly revived.

Post renaissance period in Europe (1540 - 1760)-

The development of capitalism as a leading method of production was accompanied by the birth of a new method of natural science, that of experiment and observation. This period was of steady advance without any revolutionary inventions. The increasing demand for iron led to the development of new blast furnaces. The shortage of wood for iron-smelting led to the widespread use of coal. From then on. the center of the industry was to move towards the coalfields. 

          By collecting a series of exact observations on the positions of stars and planets with specially made apparatus Kepler gave laws of planetary motion. The telescope, invented around this time, proved to be the greatest scientific instrument of this Period and revolutionized in science. Galileo was able to see that the moon was not a perfect round and smooth body but it had ridges and valleys. Galileo and Kepler could formulate mathematical descriptions of the motion of bodies because they were masters of the new mathematics that had grown during the Renaissance. Logarithm was introduced by Napier (1550-1617) which greatly simplified astronomical calculations. There were other important developments in science in this period. Magnetism was experimentally studied for the first time. Another important development was William Harvey's (1578-1657) discovery of the circulation of blood in the human body.

Q.  State the reasons why there were such few developments in science in British India.                           

A.     The British government was not interested in developing science and technology as it wanted India to remain backward and thus remained subdued. It made the investment in botanical, geological and geographical surveys from which they hoped to get direct and substantial economic and military advantages. Medical and zoological sciences did not hold such promise and, thus, they were neglected. Research in physics or chemistry was simply out of the question because these subjects were related to industrial development which the British did not want to encourage. India was considered to be only a source of raw materials and a wonderful market for all sorts of articles manufactured in Britain, from needles, nibs, and pencils to shoes, textiles, and medicines. The British government wanted India to serve a dual purpose, a market for its finished goods and a colony to supply cheap raw materials like cotton, indigo, silk, etc for its industries.

             In the educational scheme, science was never given a high priority. The charter of 1813 called for 'the introduction and promotion of knowledge of science among the inhabitants of British India'. But it remained a pious wish. In 1835, Macaulay succeeded in making a foreign language English the medium of instruction. Also, his personal distaste for science led to a curriculum that was purely literary. The entry of science in schools was thus delayed. A few medical and engineering institutions were opened but they were meant largely to supply assistants to British trained doctors and engineers. Ancient universities in India were leading centers of learning in their time and attracted scholars from other countries. So were the famous centers of Islamic learning in the medieval period in India. But these traditions did not survive.

Q.  State the developments that helped the advances of science and technology during the Renaissance.        

A.    The Renaissance was a revolutionary movement. It marked a definite and deliberate break with the past. It swept away the medieval forms of economy, of building, of art and thought. These were replaced by a new culture, capitalist in its economy, classical in its art and literature, and scientific in its approach to Nature. The feudal system dominated by the lords and the Church had given way to nation-states, where the kings or princes provided patronage to the new scientists. The technicians and artists were no longer so despised as they had been in medieval times. The practical arts of weaving, pottery, spinning, glass making, mining, metal-working, etc. became respectable. Initially, this enhanced the status of craftsmen. The Renaissance also re-established the link between the traditions of the craftsmen and those of the scholars. With this coming together of the doers and the thinkers in the changed economic situation, the stage was set for rapid growth in science. 

Q.  "Hypotheses are accepted as 'laws' only if they are supported by a great deal of experimental evidence". Explain by giving a suitable example.      

A. A hypothesis is a statement put forward on the basis of reasoning about the things that are being studied. It is an attempt to answer questions that are posed. Based on previous knowledge or observations, a speculative framework or a hypothesis is generally built to answer the question 'why'. Experiments are set up to prove the first hypothesis. or to find under what conditions the idea is valid. This leads to the formulation of more reliable laws and theories which, of course, are not considered unchangeable. Each law is valid within certain boundaries or conditions. The application of laws to real-life brings out these limitations and leads to new hypotheses, further experiments, and better laws. One of the examples is -

# why are bees attracted to flowers?

Hypothesis - 

Experiment1 - A glass jar with colorful artificial flowers and bees.

Exp 2 - A glass jar with colorful natural flowers and bees.

Observation 1. - Bees r attracted to artificial colorful flowers but fly away quickly

Observation 2. - Bees r attracted to natural colourful flowers and remain there long.

Result - Bees r attracted to flowers for both color and nectar.

Q.  What is a hypothesis? Giving suitable examples, describe the inductive and deductive logic to frame a hypothesis.     
A. A hypothesis is a statement, put forward on the basis of reasoning, about the things that are being studied. It is an attempt to answer questions that are posed. A hypothesis is formulated by taking into account all the observations that are known about the phenomenon under investigation. It tries to explain the known or predict the unknown but possible features of the phenomenon. We may use both inductive and deductive logic to frame a hypothesis.
Inductive logic - If we have direct evidence about only a part of The Method of Science and the phenomenon, or some objects or situations and, if on that basis, we infer about the properties, of Scientific Knowledge behavior and other features of the whole phenomenon, or the entire group of objects and situations, then we are using inductive logic. For example, if we know that the population of a country has doubled in a given period of time, we may use induction to hypothesize that it will double again in the same time. Again, if we study the shadows of simple objects like triangles, rectangles, and circles cast on a wall due to light from a small bulb, we may conclude that light travels in a straight line. Inductive logic can mislead also, for example, to infer that all roses are red if you happen to see only red roses in a garden is illogical. Conclusions shouldn’t be drawn on the basis of insufficient evidence, and the conclusions have to be further tested for their reliability.
Deductive logic - may be considered as the opposite of induction. Here the reasoning is more direct. Examples of deduction are: roses can be of any color, hence some roses can be red. All birds have wings; therefore, a sparrow, which is a bird, will have wings. Deductive logic is extensively used in chemistry. For example, if a group of chemical salts exhibits some properties or behavior, we can safely say that any salt belonging to this group will exhibit the same property or behavior. You could say that deduction may also mislead, because in the examples how do we know that a sparrow is a bird, or a salt belongs to that group of salts. These facts would have to be established before such deductions can be accepted.
                The hypotheses arrived at from both kinds of reasoning have to be tested before they are accepted. A major operation in the method of science is that of setting up experiments specifically designed to test the hypotheses.    

EHI - 4

18th Part 

Q.  How was the Portuguese trade in India financed?

A.  There are different ways by which Portuguese trade in India was financed -

European Merchant Financers -

As the Portuguese king couldn’t finance the whole trade on his own, he encouraged and readily allowed to let European financiers and merchants participate and finance the trade. Most of the European financiers and merchants (Italian, German, etc.) concluded contracts with the Portuguese king. They supplied cash or materials to the king in Lisbon. The king used them to purchase pepper and other commodities which were in great demand in Europe from India. These commodities were given to these financiers at Lisbon in view of the contracts signed. However, some of the financiers also sent their own factors to India. Cash or commodities were always sent under the supervision of the Portuguese authorities to the East. Sometimes, the financiers could fit out their vessels, entrust cash and commodities to the India House in Lisbon to be taken to India under the Portuguese flag and buy the commodities from Lisbon according to the terms and conditions of the contracts signed with Portuguese.

Indian merchants And Rulers - 

Sometimes, Indian traders and some rulers also facilitated Portuguese trade and supplied commodities to the Portuguese on credit when the latter did not have cash or commodities to furnish in exchange. Some of the local rulers stood surety for the Portuguese when they did not have money to pay to the merchants for the commodities bought by them. For example, the king of Cochin came forward to help the Portuguese several times making the required volume of commodities available to them on credit. Also, some Indian traders provided assistance to Portuguese by supplying them with goods on credit. Defeated rulers were compelled to pay tributes to the Portuguese, either in cash or kind. This source was also exploited by the Portuguese several times for investment.

Monopoly -

Right from the time Portuguese arrived at Calicut they had demanded that other merchants, Indian as well as foreign, should be ousted and a complete monopoly over trade be granted to them. Portuguese ships equipped with arms and ammunition threatened other merchants and confiscated their merchandise and Vessels in order to thrust their demand. The Portuguese had armed vessels plying in the Indian Ocean and the Arabian sea. Ships carrying commodities that were not given passes (cartaz) by the Portuguese officials were confiscated by them. The booty thus obtained yielded a sizeable source of income to Portuguese which was again invested in trade. The persons interested in sending their ships to other parts of India or to Asian countries were required to take passes (cartaz) from the Portuguese for which a fees was charged. Such ships were obliged to visit any of the ports in India where the Portuguese had customs houses, and to pay taxes. This was another source of income for the Portuguese. Indian merchants, rulers and all those engaged in maritime trade, had to take cartaz from the Portuguese. While issuing such passes, it was specifically mentioned that certain items like pepper, horses, ginger, coir, ship pitch, sulphur, lead, saltpeter, cinnamon, etc. were not to be loaded on their ships. All these were monopoly items of the Portuguese routes and destinations of such ships were also sought to be controlled. Rulers like Akbar and his successors, Nilam Shah of Ahmednagar, Adil Shah of Bijapur, kings of Cochin, the Zamorins of Calicut and the rulers of Cannanore purchased passes from the Portuguese to send their ships to various places.  Indian Kings were pressurized to forbid other merchants from trading with their ports. Similarly, certain commodities were declared forbidden to be traded by others. Thus, the Portuguese demanded a monopoly of trade. The treaties concluded with the Indian rulers specifically mentioned this. The setting up of Portuguese fortresses at strategic places, surveillance by their patrolling vessels, and the insistence on passes for other ships were the attempts made to establish a monopoly of trade in Asian waters. 

Spice trade -

The Portuguese established themselves on the coastal regions of India and constructed fortresses and factories in these regions that were necessary for monitoring sea trade and also facilitate trade. It reaped large profits by conducting trade in spices. For the first time in the history of international trade, commercial treaties with Indian rulers were concluded. The production of cash crops, especially spices, kept its stride with the increasing demand overseas, thus helping Portuguese in financing trade.

Q.  Trace the evolution of the Mughal school of painting under Akbar.

A.  The emergence of the Mughal School of painting was distinct from all other styles mainly due to the deep interest Akbar took in the promotion of art. Hence the art flourishes and has obtained a great reputation under Akbar.

Royal Atelier - 

Akbar established Royal Atelier where many artists were employed. The atelier was supervised by daroghas with the assistance of clerks. They were responsible for making materials of painting easily available to the artists and to oversee the progress of their work. They also arranged for the periodical presentation of

the artists' works before the Emperor. These artists belonged to different religions and castes. The painters were assisted by a set of gilders, line drawers and pagers. Works of all painters were weekly laid before Akbar by the Daroghas and the clerks who then confers rewards according to the excellence of workmanship, or increase the monthly salaries. The minuteness in detail, the general finish, the boldness of execution, etc., now-observed in pictures, was incomparable; even inanimate objects look as if they had life. The first major project undertaken during Akbar's regime was that of illustrating the Hamza Nama which began in 1562. 

Style and Technique -

There was a gradual evolution of style and technique during Akbar time in Mughal art. In the early phase Mughal art was influenced by the Persian tradition, the identifying features of which are listed below:

# symmetrical compositions;

# restricted movement of figures;

# fineness of the lines of drawings;

# flat depiction of architectural columns; and

# profuse embellishment of buildings in the manner of jewels.

However, the paintings in the later period acquired a distinctive character of their own. They assumed a more eclectic character composed mainly of the Persian and Indian traditions with touches of European influence.

Distinctive Feature - 

The Mughal style became recognizable within a span of fifteen years since the setting up of royal atelier under Akbar. By about 1590 it acquired a distinctive form which was marked by:

# Naturalism and Rhythm

# clothing objects of daily use assuming Indian forms.

# picture space having subsidiary scenes set in background

# extraordinary vigor of action and violent movement

# luxuriant depiction of foliage & brilliant blossoms 

                 The identity of the Mughal paintings under Akbar was as much made of an original style as a fusion of the Persian and Indian traditions. It emphasizes on the depiction of action and movement which is not to be found in either the pre-Mughal art of India or the art of Persia hence it was unique in its form. 

           Painting under Akbar's period distinguish itself as a tradition from Persia painting as well, as from Indian styles particularly by the presence & of the historical subject matter. The two most commonly used themes were:

# daily events of the court, and

# portraits of leading personalities

While portrait painting was known in Persia, painting as a chronicle of actual events was a new emphasis that started during this time under Akbar. Painters used the familiar forms and for hunting or battle scenes regardless of the fact that the literacy reference for the scene was historical or purely imaginary.Moreover, specific events illustrated are frequently reworkings of scenes The painters conceived scenes according to a repertoire of types e.g. the seize of a fortress, crossing a river, an audience or battle scene. In the working of whole volumes such as the Akbar Nama, the artists seem to have reworked or adapted these compositional types. Painters usually mated new compositions only when no prototypes existed and these were produced by only a few who were capable of innovations.

Q.  What were the problems faced by Humayun at his accession? How did he overcome them?

A.  Humayun faced multiple problems during the time of his accession like -

             At the time of his accession, Humayun didn’t command the respect and esteem of the nobility like his father Babur. Firstly, Humayun faced the rebellion of nobles who were divided into different camps, supporting different candidates for the throne. The Chaghatai nobles were not favorably inclined towards him and the Indian nobles, who had joined Babur's service, also deserted the Mughals at Humayun's accession. Secondly, there were other contenders too for the throne, these contenders like Muhammad Sultan Mina, a descendant of Timur; Muhammad Zaman and Mir Muhammad Mahdi Khwaja, brother-in-law of Babur, were also considered worthy and supported by a section of nobles indicating Humayun didn’t have the complete grip on his throne initially. Thirdly, Humayun had to contend against the united Afghans both at the east and west which was supported by a large social base. These Afghans wanted to overthrow Mughal rule and establish themselves. 

                 Finally, Immediately after the death of his father Babur, Humayun was forced to divide his empire into four parts as were the norm among the Mughals. He gave Mewat to Hindal, Sambhal to Askari and Punjab, Kabul and Qandahar to Kamran Mirza. The very division itself was unfavorable to Humayun for he was left with little resources at his disposal. In spite of this kind of treatment, his brothers hardly helped him when he needed it. He even faced hostility of his brothers especially Kamran Mirza who wanted to dislodge Humayun and usurp the throne. On many occasions, he dealt with them too kindly. The situation thus deteriorated by the existence of two centers of power within the empire - Humayun at the center and Kamran Mirza who had autonomous control over Afghanistan and Punjab.

           After losing his empire to the Afghans, he started mobilizing resources with the help of Shah of Iran thereby the measures he took helped him in regaining the throne.

             Firstly, Humayun wrested Qandahar from Persia in 1545 thus gaining the support of many nobles. Thereafter, he attacked Kabul and regained control in 1553 forcing Kamran Mirza to flee and eventually killed. With the end of opposition to his rule, he redirected his power to regain his throne.

         Secondly, The weakening of Afghan rule in India due to Sedition and rebellions marred the entire country and the Empire broke into 'five' kingdoms. This created an ideal political condition that was exploited by Humayun. He started in November 1554 and reached Lahore in Feb. 1555. Humayun reached Salimgarh in June 1555 and occupied Delhi by defeating Sikander Shah Suri. 

Q.  Discuss the administrative structure of the Marathas.

A.  The Maratha polity was essentially a centralized autocratic monarchy. The king was at the helm of affairs. The king's chief objective was the happiness and prosperity of his subjects.

Central Administration

To assist the king, there was a council of state ministers known as ashtapradhan:

i) Peshwa(Prime Minister) : He was the head of both civil and military affairs.

ii) Mazumdar (auditor) : He looked into the income & expenditure of the state.

iii) wakins: He was the in-charge of the king's private affairs.

iv) Dabir : Foreign secretary

v) Surnis (superintendent): He used to take care of all the official correspondences.

vi) Pandit Rao : Ecclesiastical head

vii) Sehapati : Commander in chief

viii) Nyayadhish : Chief Justice

The council could advise the king but it was not binding on him to accept its advice. Each of the ashtapradhana was assisted by eight assistants: diwan, Mazumdar, fadnis, sabnis, karkhanis, chitnis, jamadar, and potnis.

Provincial Administration - 

The country was divided into mauzas, tarfs and prants. Mauza was the lowest unit. Then were the tarfs headed by a havaldar, karkun or paripatyagar. The provinces were known as prants under subedar,  karkun (or mukhya deshadhikari). Over a number of prants there was the sarsubedar to control and supervise the work of subedars. Each subedar had eight subordinate officers: diwan, mazumdar, fadnis, sabnis, karkhanis, chitnis, jamadar and potnis. Under Shivaji, none of the officers was permanent and hereditary. All officers were liable to frequent transfers. This was done to ensure they do not develop roots and threaten the state.

Military - 

               Forts found the prime place in Maratha scheme of military organization. No single officer was entrusted with sole charge of a fort. Instead, in every fort there were a havaldar, a sabnis and a sarnobat. Big forts had five to ten sarnobats . All these officers were of equal status and rank and were frequently transferred. This system acted as a check and balance on each others authority. The havaldar was in charge of the keys of the fort. The sabnis controlled the muster-roll and dealt with all government correspondences. He also looked after the revenue-estimates of the province (under the jurisdiction of the fort). The sarnobat was the in charge of the garrison. Besides, there was karkhanis who used to take care of grain stores and other material requirements. All daily accounts of income and expenditure were to be entered by the karkhanis. None held absolute power. Though the sabnis, was the in-charge of accounts, all orders had to bear the seal of the havaldar and the karkhanis. Besides, no single officer could surrender the fort to the enemy. 

Judiciary

The Marathas failed to develop any organized judicial department. At the village level, civil cases were heard by the village elders (panchayat) in the Patil's office or in the village temple. Criminal cases were decided by the Patil. 

Q.  Write a note on the growth of the Mansab system under Akbar.

A.   The word mansab means a place or position and therefore it means rank in the mansab system under the Mughals.The system was developed to create a centralized administrative system as well as creating a large force. Mansabdars and their large forces were used to expand the empire and administer it effectively. Akbar gave mansabs to both military and civil officers on the basis of their merit or service to the state. To fix the grades of officers and classify his soldiers. Akbar had established 66 grades of mansabdars ranging from commanders of 10 horsemen to 10,000 horsemen. Mansab denoted three things:

i) It determined the status of its holder (the mansabdar) in the official hierarchy.

ii) It fixed the pay of the holder.

iii) It also laid upon the holder the obligation of maintaining a specified number of contingent with horses and equipment.

            Initially, a single number represented the rank, personal pay and the size of contingent of mansabdar, but under Akbar, the rank of mansabdar instead of one number, came to be denoted by two numbers - zat and sawar. The first number (zat) determined the mansabdar's personal pay and his rank in the organization. The second number (sawar) fixed the number of horses and horsemen to be maintained by the mansabdar and, accordingly, the amount he would receive for his contingent. During Akbar’s reign three classes of Mansabdars emerged, these were-

a) those with horsemen (sawar) equal to the number of the zat;

b) those with horsemen half or more than half of the number of the zat, and

c) those whose sawar rank was less than half of their zat rank.

                The sawar rank was either equal or less than the zat. Even if the former was higher, the mansabdar's position in the official hierarchy would not be affected. But there are exceptions to this rule particularly when the mansabdar was serving in a difficult terrain amidst the rebels. In such cases, the state often increased the sawar rank without altering the zat rank. Thus the system was not a static one and it changed to meet the circumstances. The salaries and obligation of maintaining troops were governed by a definite set of rules which underwent changes from time to time. This is how, mansab system developed under Akbar.

Q.  Discuss various categories of land rights in the Deccan and South India in the 16-17th century.

A.  There were 4 kinds of land rights in the Deccan, these were-

 Mirasi Rights - It refers to hereditary or transferable right or patrimony (bap roti) obtained by descent, purchase, or gift, etc. The mlrasdars were the holders of land under the mirasi tenure. They owned the village land and could exact rent in money or service from persons who lived on their land. There were two categories of the mirasdars - 

(a)  the hereditary owners of the miras land, and (b)those who had reclaimed the gatkul land of the village.

The village land was held by the mirasdars: 

1)on the basis of joint co-parcenary terms according to which the village land was divided into several shares, and 

2) on the basis of single proprietor ownership of the village. The mirasdar possessed complete private proprietory rights in the miras land. The state could not encroach upon the mirasi rights.

Inam Land - Inam implied the grant of a specific amount of revenue of a village to a person. The inam village was assigned on a hereditary basis to persons or officials. The inam lands were either totally exempt from tax or subject to a low tax called inam patti. It was a privileged category of land right. Inam was assigned to different categories: hereditary village officials. state officials, temples and balutedars (priests). The holders were designated inamdars. There were both residents and absentee inamdars.

State land or Crown land - Land held by the government as a corporate body or by the Peshwa/ruler was treated as state land. State lands existed in many villages of the Deccan managed by the local bureaucrats. They could be sold by them after taking approval from the central government. These lands were granted in inam or could be developed into house sites.

Waste Lands or Lands of Extinct Families - The lands of the families which had become extinct were called gatkul zamin. Lands that were left uncultivated for long periods were called pad zamin. Even the miras lands contained pad zamin. The wastelands could be appropriated and disposed of by the village headman, local village assembly and government. The lands expropriated by the village headman were regarded as miras lands on which land revenue was levied. The houses and house sites of extinct families could be acquired by the village headman after taking

the approval of the local village assembly. 

In the south we had Kaniparru. The land tenure of the nayaks is referred to as kaniparru. It refers to rights in Lands, i.e., to buy and sell without the absolute right of ownership. It also refers to a variety of taxes. The rights were as follows:

1) to collect dues from the peasants;

2) to cultivate the land and settle people; and

3) to receive prasadam (sacred food) from the temple.

However, the transfer of land to the nayak did not imply the transfer of the right of Ownership. The Nayak could use the land and collect taxes, but the temples reserved the right of ownership to themselves.

Q  Bijapur Kingdom 

A.  The independent state of Bijapur was carved out from the Bahmani kingdom in 1490. Bijapur remained independent till 1686 when it was annexed by the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb. During this period of around 200 years, it was ruled by Adil Shahi kings. Its founder, Yusuf Adil Khan, of Persian descent, was the tarafdar (governor) of Bijapur province of the Bahmani kingdom. He declared his independence in 1490. He enlarged his small territory by capturing Raichur, Goa, Dabhol, Gulbarga and Kalyani. But he lost Goa to the Portuguese in 1510. He was succeeded by Ismail Shah who captured Bidar. Muhammad Adil Shah (1627-1656) was the most successful ruler of the Shahi dynasty. He conquered Tivy, Barder, Sarzora etc. from the Portuguese. During his reign, the kingdom reached the zenith of its glory. At the time of his death in 1656, the boundaries of the kingdom extended from the Arabian sea to the Bay of Bengal and the tributes from the subdued Nayaks compensated for the loss incurred by payments to the Mughals. After his death, the Bijapur kingdom became weak due to the Mughal and Maratha invasions. Finally, in 1686, the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb defeated the Adil Shahi forces and annexed the kingdom to the Mughal Empire. 

Q.  Turco-Mongol concept of sovereignty -  

A.   Chingiz Khan had borrowed his divine theory of sovereignty from the Uighurs, the Mongols themselves seem to believe in absolute power of the Khan. However division of the Empire among the ruler's sons for facilitating administration with all its rigors and satiating the desires of governance among princes was the cardinal principle of Mongol concept of sovereignty.But Timur followed the concept of absolute sovereignty and had accepted the nominal overlordship of a descendant of Chingiz Khan. The existence of puppet Khans was a political necessity for Timur who did not belong to the royal family of Chingiz and in the given situation if he didn’t accept nominal lordship Timur's right to accession was likely to be challenged by the Mongols. The practice of installing puppet Khans was 'merely a political game which had been played by Timur and his successors to mobilize the support of Mongol forces and to use them finally to establish their own power and to legitimize their rule over a territory which was actually usurped by them from the Mongols.