EHI - 3

6th Part

Q. Relation of Gujrat with neighboring states.

A.  The Kingdom of Gujarat since its inception had been constantly clashing with its neighboring territories -Malwa, Rajputana, Khandesh and the Bahmani kingdoms.

 Relations with Malwa

The Malwa rulers were their traditional enemies. In 1408, Muzaffar Shah attacked Malwa and made its ruler Hoshang Shah captive. Though Hoshang Shah had to accept the suzerainty of Muzaffar Shah, he was jealous of the rising power of Gujarat. To undermine its power, the rulers of Malwa used to join hands with the enemies of Gujarat. But Ahmad Shah of Gujarat succeeded in crushing Hoshang Shah's power. Later during Qutbuddin Ahmad Shah 11's reign (1451-59), Mahmud Khalji of Malwa attacked Gujarat but he was repulsed.

Relations with Rajputana

Another formidable power with which the rulers of Gujarat had been constantly at war was Rajputana. The first Rajput kingdom to form part of Gujarat was Idar (1426). Soon, Ahmad Shah overran Dungarpur (1433). Later, Qutbuddin (1451-59) and Mahmud Begarha (1459-151 1) had to face Rana Kumbha, the ruler of Mewar. The Rajput state of Champaner also constantly clashed with Gujarat. But finally, it was annexed to the Gujarat kingdom by Mahmud Begarha in 1483-84 who renamed it Muhammadabad and made it his second capital. 

Relations with Bahmani and Khandesh

The Bahmani ruler Feroz Shah maintained cordial relations with the Gujarati rulers. But after his death (1397-1422), a radical change came about with the accession of Ahmad Bahmani (1422-1436) who formed a matrimonial alliance with the ruler of Khandesh. When-Rai Kanha of Jhalawar fled (1429), Khandesh and Bahmani rulers gave asylum to him. This infuriated Ahmad Shah Gujarati and he had to use force against them. He subjected them to a crushing defeat and occupied Mahim. However, during Mahmud Begarha’s reign cordialities revived. When Mahmud

Khalji of Malwa attacked the Bahmani kingdom, Mahmud Begarha came twice to its rescue.

           Mahmud Begarha also maintained friendly relations with the Khandesh rulers, but Adil Khan II ceased to pay tribute and joined hands with Ahmadqgar and Berar. As a result, Mahmud Begarha attacked Khandesh and finally, Adil Khan was compelled to accept the suzerainty of Mahmud Begarha. But the latter did not annex either Khandesh or Daulatabad; instead, he confirmed their rulers on payment of tribute.

Q.  Explain the rise and consolidation of Bahamani power in the Deccan. 20

Q.  Examine the main features of the economy of the Vijaynagar empire.  12

Q.  Discuss the growth of Sufi orders in India during the Sultanate period  20

A.  Various Sufi orders were introduced in India after the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate at the beginning of the 13th century. During the 13th and 14th  centuries, khanqahs sprang up in various parts of India. The Sufi's introduced various orders in India from the Islamic world, built up their own organizations and

established themselves in their respective areas of influence. By the middle of the 14 century, the entire country from Multan to Bengal and from Punjab to Deogiri had come under the sphere of their activity. Once the Sufi orders took roots in different parts of India, they followed their own phases of growth, stagnation, and revival. 

SUFI ORDERS IN INDIA DURING THE SULTANATE PERIOD 

The Suhrawardi Sllsilah

The Suhrawardi silsilah was a major order of the Sultanate period. Its founder in India was Shaikh Bahauddin Zakariya (1182-1262). He was a Khurasami and was a disciple of Shaikh $hahabuddin Suhrawardi who had initiated the silsilah in Baghdad and was directed by the latter to proceed to India. He made Multan and Sind the centers of his activity. Thus, one of the oldest khanqahs in India was established by him at Multan. He accepted-State patronage and maintained links with the ruling classes. 

           In addition to Shaikh Bahuddin-Zdcariya, many other Khalifas were designated by Shaikh Shahabuddin Suhrawardi to spread the Suhrawardi silsilah in India. One of them was Shaikh Jalaluddin Tabrizi. After his initial stay in Delhi, where he failed to

establish his supremacy, he went to Bengal. He established his khanqah there and made many disciples. He attached langar (center for the distribution of free meals) to his khanqah. He is said to have played an important role in the process of Islamization in Bengal. During the Sultanate period, Punjab, Sind, and Bengal became three important centers of the Suhrawardi activity. They converted people with the help of the ruling class.

The Chishti Silsilah

The growth of the Chi&ti order in India during the Sultanate period took place in two phases.

First Phase

       The Chishti order became the most influential and popular Sufi order in India, originated in Herat & was introduced in India by Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti (d. 1236). He came to India at the time of the Ghori conquest and settled in Ajmer about 1206 and won the respect of both Muslims and non-Muslims.

         The successor of Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti in Delhi was Khwaja Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki (d. 1235). Shaikh Hamidduddin Nagauri (d. 1274), another Khalifa of Shaikh Muinuddin (Chishti, made Nagaur in Rajasthan center of his activity.

                Shaikh's Hamiduddin Nagauri established the silsilah in Nagaur where he lived like an ordinary Rajasthani peasant and dissociated himself from those in authority. He was a strict vegetarian. He and his successors translated many Persian Sufi verses in the local language called Hindavi. 

         Khwaja Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki was succeeded in Delhi by his Khalifa,  popularly as Baba Farid who left Delhi for Punjab and lived in his khanqah there.

         He despised association with the ruling class and rich persons. Nathpanthi yogis also visited his khanqah and discussed with him the nature of mysticism. His popularity in Punjab is clear from the fact that more than three hundred years after his death, verses ascribed to him Were included in the Adi Granth compiled by the fifth Sikh Guru, Arjun, in 1604. The most celebrated disciple of Baba Farid and the greatest Sufi saint of the 14th century was Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya (1236-1325) who made Delhi the most famous center of the Chishti order. Later. his successors spread the Chishti order in various parts of the country.

Second Phase

The second phase in the history of the Chishti silsilah during the Sultanate period began with its decline in Delhi following the death of Shaikh Nasiruddin and its subsequent dispersal in various regional kingdoms. Though the Sufis had begun to arrive in the Deccan from the late 13th century, it was Shaikh Burhanuddin Gharib who introduced the Chishti order there during the reign of Muhammad Tughluq. The Bahmani kings, on their part, purchased the political loyalty of these Sufis and gave land grants to them. The most prominent of these Chishtis was Muhammad Banda Nawaz, Gesudaraz (c. 1321-1422). He left for the Deccan and received a land grant of four villages from Bahmani Sultan, Feroz Shah Bahmani (1397-1422). He was an orthodox Sufi and declared the supremacy of Islamic law (Shariat) overall Sufi stages. Gisudaraz discontinued many practices of early Chishtis which clashed with the attitudes of orthodox ulema. After his death, the Bahmani Sultans continued the land grants in favor of his family descendants. His tomb or dargah in Gulbarga later developed into a popular place of pilgrimage in the Deccan. But the transformation of his descendants into a landed elite and their

indifference towards Chishti teachings led to the decline of living Chishti tradition in Gulbarga. The change of Bahmani capital from Gulbarga to Bidar in 1422 also contributed to the decline of the Chishti order in Gulbarga. 

           However. the Chishti tradition began to thrive again in the Deccan from the end of the 15th century and it continued to grow during the 16th and 17th centuries. 

Other Sufi Orders

In addition to the Chishti and the Suhrawardi.orders, there were others such as the Firdausi, 'the Qadiri,, the Shattari, Qalandari, etc. which were introduced in India during this period. 

                The Firdausi order was a branch of the Suhrawardi which established itself at Rajgir in Bihar towards the end of the 14th century. 

              The Qadiri was introduced in India in the late 14th century and established itself in the Punjab, Sind and the Deccan. The Qadiri had an orthodox orientation and its doctrinal positions were similar to those of the orthodox ulema. The Qadiri Sufis had close relations with the ruling classes of various provincial Sultanates and accepted state charity. The order was urban-based and attempted to reform the religious life of Indian Muslims of what is considered as un-Islamic influences.

           The Shattari order was introduced in India in the 15th century by Shaikh Abdullah Shattari, were also an orthodox order. The Shattari centers were established in Bengal, Jaunpur and the Deccan. Like the Qadiris, the Shattari Sufis Had close ties with the court and accepted state patronage.

           The Qalandari order covered a wide range of wandering dervishes who violated normal social behavior. They were considered reprehensible and above Islamic law. 'They had no recognized spiritual master and organization. Many Frequently visited Chisti khanqahs and became absorbed into the Chisti order. They also had contacts with the Nathpanthi yogis and adopted many of their customs and practices like ear piercing. 

          The Rishi order of Sufism flourished in Kashmir during the 15th and 16th centuries. .It prospered in the rural environment of Kashmir and influenced the religious life of the people during the 15th and 16th centuries. The popularity of the Rishi order was due to the fact and it drew inspiration from the popular Shaivite bhakti tradition of Kashmir.

Q.  Describe Salient features of Sufism

A.  There developed a number of Sufi orders Or silsilah in and outside India. All these orders had their special characteristics. However, there were a number of features which are common to all the Sufi orders Here we will discuss such features.

i)  Sufism, as it developed in the Islamic world, came to stress the importance of traversing the su& path (tariqa) as a method of establishing direct communion with divine reality (haqiqat).

ii)  According to the Sufi beliefs, the novice has to pass through a succession of "stations" or "stages and changing psychological conditions or "states" (hal) to experience God.

iii)  The Sufi path could be traversed only under the strict supervision of a spiritual director (shaikh, pir or murshid) who had himself successfully traversed it and consequently established direct communion with God.

iv)  The disciple (murid) progressed through the "stages" and "states" by practicing such spiritual exercises as self-mortification, the recollection of God's name to attain concentration (zikr) and contemplation. 

v)  The Sufis organized impassioned musical recital (sama). The practice of sama was intended to induce a mystical state of ecstasy. However, some Sufi orders did not approve of certain forms of sama and the ulema was particularly hostile to this practice.

vi)  Yet another feature of Sufism is the organization of the Sufi into various orders (silsilah). Each of these silsilah e.g. suhrawardi, Qadiri, Chishti, etc. Was founded by a leading figure who lent his name to it. A silsilah consisted of persons who had become disciples of a particular Sufi.

vii) The hospice (khanqah) was the center of the activities of a Sufi order. It was the place where the pir imparted spiritual training to his disciples. The popularity of the khanqah and its capacity to attract disciples depended on the reputation of the pir. The khanqahs were supported by endowment and charity.

Q.  Analyse the reasons for the popularity of Chishti Sufis in India.  

A.  All the Sufi orders of the Sultanate period believed in achieving the basic Sufi goal of .establishing direct communion with God by traversing the Sufi path under the supervision of a spiritual guide. However, different Sufi orders observed distinct rituals & customs of their own and differed in their attitudes to state and society. Of all the orders of this period, the Chishti emerged as the most popular, and it was also widespread. Chishti rituals, attitudes, and practices made it an essentially Indian silsilah. The causes of its popularity are as follows :

i)   Many practices of early Chlshtis bore a close resemblance to the attributes of some of the already existing non-conformist religious orders in India such as asceticism, bowing before the master, shaving the head of a new entrant into the order and organizing spiritual musical recital. In this sense, the Chishtis came to be regarded as part of an established tradition in India.

ii)  The Chishtis adopted an attitude of religious tolerance towards the non-Muslim the population of India and adjusted themselves to the needs of a predominantly non-Muslim environment. They made use of popular imagery and popular idiom to convey their ideas to their Indian followers and adopted many of their customs and rituals. Many of the Chishti saints made Hindavi the vehicle tor spreading their teachings.

iii)  The egalitarian atmosphere of the Chishti khanqahs attracted a large number of people from lower sections of Indian society. The Chishti attitude towards religion was characterized by sympathy towards the deprived sections of society. Caste distinctions of the Brahmanical social order were meaningless in the Chishti khanqahs. Merchants, artisans, peasants and even sweepers became the followers of the Chishti order. Nor did they accept, the two-fold racial division of the people by the Turkish ruling class into noble-Born and low-born.

iv)  The inspired leadership of the early Chishti masters, their aloofness from the court and their unwillingness to accept state patronage, their rejection of the orthodoxy and extreme attitudes of the ulema, and, finally, the combining of the simple precepts of Islam with the Sufi teachings contributed to the popularity of the Chishti order.

v) The popularity of the early Chishtis rose after their life time as the cult of saints began to develop in the later centuries around their shrines (dargahs). Later, legend-makers and writers of literature sometimes attributed the popularity of the early Chishti Sufis to their ability to perform miracles. In the subsequent centuries, traditions were invented to represent the early Chistis as being actively involved in the conversion of the non-Muslims who were believed to have been drawn to them due to their alleged miracle-performing powers. However, the early Chishti Sufis disapproved of the display of miraculous powers, though they did believe in the possibility of miracles. They did not consider the miracles of primary importance in Sufi teaching and practice. Nevertheless, the miracle stories about the early Chistis played an important role in enhancing the popularity of the Chishti shrines and the

Posthumous popularity of the Sufis themselves.

Q.  Write a note on the interaction between Sufism and the bhakti movement.

A.  The interaction between the two is clear from the remarkable similarities between the two. These similarities included an emphasis on monotheism, on the role of the spiritual guide (pir or guru), and on mystical union with God. Moreover, both the Bhakti saints and many Sufi orders were critical of the orthodox elements in Hinduism and Islam respectively. one prominent example of the influence of the bhakti movement on Sufism is offered by the Rishi order of the Sufis in Kashmir. Here, the non-conformist ideas of the famous 14th-century women bhakti-preacher, Lal Ded exercised a profound influence on the founder of the order Shaikh Nuruddin Wali.

              The interaction between the Chishti Sufis and the Nath Panth yogis during the sultanate period is a well-established fact. The movement of the nathpanthis had attained considerable popularity in Northern India, in particular among the lower sections of the society, during the 13th and 14th centuries. The nathpanthi yogis frequently visited the khanqahs of the leading chisti shaikhs and had discussions with them on the nature of mysticism. The translation of the Yoga treatise Amrit-Kund into Persian from Sanskrit even before the advent of Sufism in India led to the adoption of may meditative practices by the Sufis. The early chistis approved some of the ethical values of the nathpanthi yogis and their corprate way of life. Like the Chishtis, the nathpanthis had opened their doors to all sections of society, irrespective of caste distinctions. The common outlook of the two popular movements provided a basis for mutual understanding between Muslims and

Non-Muslims. 

              The adaptability of the Chishtis in the non-Muslim environment of India released syncretic forces and led to cultural synthesis. Many early chisti spoke in Hindawi and composed verses in it. The Chisti practice of sama provided the basis for a syncretic musical tradition such as of religious songs called qawwali which is said to have begun with Amir Khusrau.

Q.  Provide a brief account of the development of Hindi literature during the 13th to 15th centuries. 12

A.     This is the second phase in the growth of Hindi literature which began in the 14th-15th centuries. Various streams of the bhakti movement exercised a profound influence on the Hindi literature of this phase. This phase of Hindi literature has been characterized as -Bhakti Kala (Age of devotion) and it continued till the Mughal period. This phase which began with Kabir marked the richest flowering of Hindi literature. The bhakti poets of the period were two-fold: the saguna poets (who believed in god with

human form and attributes) and nirguna poets (who believed in non-incarnate Absolute God). 

          Kabir headed the nirguna poets. He used his strong and rough verses to present a powerful denunciation of various rituals. Another important characteristic of Kabir's short poetical utterances is the use of 'upside-down language' which consisted of a series of paradoxes and enigmas. It has been pointed out that Kabir inherited this from the nathpanthis and adapted it for an effective rhetorical and teaching device. Kabir and other "low-caste" monotheistic poets (Sen, Pipa, Dhanna, Raidas, etc.)expressed themselves in oral style. The poetry they composed forms a part of oral literature. Their verses were compiled much later - the earliest instance of their written compositions are from the Adi Granth in 1604. Being illiterate, they had no direct access to the Sanskrit literature. They expressed themselves in the local languages of the people. They composed Doha ( short rhymed poem). The poetry of Kabir and other saints of the 15th century played the most important role in transforming the Hindi vernaculars into a literary language.

         The poets belonging to the conventional Vaishnava bhakti movement in North India were mostly Brahmans and were familiar with Brahmanical scriptures and Sanskrit texts. Most of them were either devotee of Rama or Krishna. The greatest poet of Hindi literature was Tulsidas (A.D.1532-1623) who wrote the famous Ram Charit Manas in the Awadhi dialect of Hindi. Among the Krishna bhakti poets, Vidyapati composed verses about the love of Radha and Krisha in Maithili Hindi. The influence of his lyrical poetry was felt in Bengal and some Bengali poets imitated his songs. Vrindavan near Mathura emerged as a center of Vaishnava bhakti poetry by the end of the Sultanate period. These poets were devotees of Krishna and composed their verses in Braj bhasha. The greatest of these poets was Surdas (c. 1483-1563). Another great name in the Vaishnava bhakti poetry was that of Mira Bai (c. 1498-1543).

Sufi Contribution to Hindi Literature

               Sufi saints and other scholars of this period contributed substantially to the growth of Hindi literature. The Chisti Sufis made use of Hindi devotional songs in Sama (ecstatic singing and dancing) sessions. Sufi mystical and allegorical meanings were

given to various Hindi terms such as "Gopis", "Raslila", etc. The Sufi poets combined Islamic mysticism with imaginative use of Indian love tales, popular legends, and stories. Mullah Daud 's Chandayan (written in c. 1379) is the earliest of such poetical works. literary compositions of the Sufi poets also contributed to the corporation of many Arabic and Persian words into Hindi literature & thus played an important role in cultural and literary synthesis.

Q.  Enumerate the position of women in the Sultanate period. 

A.  There was almost no change in the lifestyle of the upper-caste Hindu women during this period. Women were subordinate to men in every walk of life - as daughter, wife and even after her husband's death (under her eldest son's care). Birth of a daughter was looked down upon since they were considered as a symbol of dishonor for the father. Their main duty was to produce progeny, especially the male child. They were strictly confined in the 'antahpura' (inner sanctum). The ancient rules enjoining early marriages for girls and the wife's duties to her husband and his kula (lineage) were continuously stressed. 

            Annulment of marriages took place in special circumstances such as desertion, disease or mental disorder. The position of Muslim women was also very much similar to their Hindu counterparts. As for female education, the women of poor classes did not have a chance for education, but the higher strata women seem to have received education and training. The example of Raziya shows that Muslim aristocracy did impart education to their daughters as well. The practice of Sati was prevalent but was confined to the upper strata of society. The degraded position of the widow seems to be the most important factor that encouraged sati. Among the Rajputs, the practice of Jauhar was also prevalent. In the event of an imminent defeat, their women were set on fire. 

          During this period among Hindus, the widow had the right to the property of a sonless husband, provided the property was not commonly held. The widow was not merely the guardian of this property but had the full right to dispose of it. Though in the face of these commentaries, it seems that the property rights of women improved in the Hindu society, but this could have hardly applied in a uniform manner all over the country. 

          During this time, purdah became a privilege of upper classes. Both Hindu and Muslim aristocracy guarded their women by keeping them hidden within the walled space of the antahpura and the harem while the poor (Muslim) women used burqa to cover their bodies.

Q.  Trace the growth and development of Persian, Urdu and Arabic languages and literature in India between the 13th and 15th centuries.  12

Q.  Provide a brief survey of Persian sources for Delhi Sultanate. 

A.  Arabic languages & Literature - Although attention was paid to the cultivation of the Arabic language in India after the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate, the Turkish rulers were more influenced by the Persian language. As a consequence, the production of literary works in Arabic was restricted to a small circle of Islamic scholars and philosophers. Sultan Feroz Shah Tughluq (1351-1388) patronized many Arabic scholars and it was under his patronage that the great Arabic dictionary - the Qamus - by Majduddin Ferozabadi was produced. After the disintegration of the Delhi Sultanate, the rulers of many provincial kingdoms also patronized Arabic learning. 

Persian Language and Literature - Amir Khusrau played a pivotal role in the development and spread of Persian literature. The reign of the Khaljis was a glorious period from the viewpoint of the growth of Persian literature in India. Amir Khusrau was a prolific and versatile writer and is said to have composed half a million verses and ninety-nine works on different themes. His poetry consisted of a great variety of forms - lyric, ode, epic, and elegy. His poetry was essentially Indian in sentiment though he followed Persian models in technique. Thus he created a new style of Persian which came to be known as sabaq-i Hindi or the Indian style. Five literary masterpieces composed by him are Mutla-ul Anwar, Shirin Khusrau, Laila Majnun, Ayina-I Sikandari and Hasht Bihisht. He also wrote gazals, these compositions show the great lyrical talent of his poetry. Amir Khusrau also wrote historical masnavis (narrative poems) which have great literary and historical value. Miftah-uI Futuh deals with the military successes of Sultan Jalaluddin Khalji. 'Ashiqa' is the story of romantic love between Khizr Khan, the eldest son of Sultan Alauddin Khalji and Deval Rani, daughter of Rai Karan, the Raja of Gujarat. In Nuh Siphr (The Nine Skies) he gives a poetical description of Sultan Qutbuddin Mubarak Khalji's reign. This work also contains references to contemporary social and religious conditions. The Tugqluq Nama describes Ghiyasuddin Tughluq's rise to power.

Another historical work written by Amir Khusrau is Khazain-ul Futuh in which he gives an account of Alauddin Khalji's conquests in the South.

             Hasan Dehlawi was another famous Persian poet during the Sultanate period. He was a friend of Amir Khusrau. He was one of the court poets of Sultan Alauddin Khalji. The quality of his ghazals earned him the title of S'adi of Hindustan. Poetical writings in Persian continued during the [reigns of the Tughluq and Lodi Sultans. The expansion of the Delhi Sultanate led to the extension of the Persian literature to various parts of India. The emergence of provincial kingdoms following the disintegration of the Delhi Sultanate also contributed to this process. With the foundation of the Bahmani kingdom in the Deccan, many Persian poets and scholars migrated to Gulbarga where they were patronized by the Bahmani Sultans.

Historical Works in Persian

                 One of the important contributions of Persian literature during the Sultanate period (and later during the Mughal period) was in the sphere of history writing. Many historians wrote the history of the period in the Persian language. For the history of the

Sultanate, we have to depend largely on the accounts provided by the court chroniclers of this period. The most important of these historians were Minaj us Siraj (author of the Tabaqat-i Nasiri), Isami (author of the Futuh-us Salatin), Shams Siraj Afif (author of the Tarikh-i Feroz Shahi). Among the Sultans Feroz, Shah Tughluq wrote the Futuhat-i Ferozshahi. But the greatest historian of this period was Ziauddin Barani. His Tarikh-i Ferozshahi is the most valuable work of history written during-the period. Barani completed this work in 1357. This book was named after  Feroz Shah Tughluq.

Urdu Language and Literature - by the end of the 14th century, Urdu was emerging as an independent language. Like Hindi, the basic structure of Urdu consisted of Khari Boli - a mixture of various dialects spoken in Delhi and surrounding regions. Delhi, during this period, was ideally situated for the growth of a synthetic language since, on the one hand, it was surrounded. by people speaking different dialects and, on the other hand, it had a Persian speaking ruling elite. Thus, Urdu adopted Persian script and Persian literary tradition but by incorporating the basic structure of Hindi

dialects evolved an individuality of its own.

             In its initial form, Urdu appears to have been devised as an improvised speech to enable the Persian speaking Turkish ruling class and soldiers to communicate with the local people including Muslim converts. This new common language took a century to acquire a concrete shape and came to be called "Hindavi" by Amir Khusrau. Hindavi thus forms the basis of both Hindi and Urdu. Amir Khusrau composed verses in Hindavi (using Persian script) and thus laid the foundation of Urdu literature. However, it was in the Deccan that Urdu first acquired a standardized literary form and came to be known as Dakhini during the 15th century. It developed first under the Bahmani rule and flourished in the Bijapur and Golconda kingdoms. Gesu Daraz's Miraj-ul Ashiqin is the earliest work in Dakhini Urdu. Till the 18th century, Urdu was called by various names such as "Hindavi", "Dakhini", "Hindustani" or "Rekhta" (which means mingling several things to produce something new). In its developed form, Dakhini Urdu traveled

back to the north and soon became popular during the Mughal period, It was during the period of the disintegration of the Mughal empire in the 18th century that the Urdu literature reached great heights.

Q.  Trace the growth and development of regional languages between 13-15 century - 12

A.  One of the important features of the literary history of this period is the development of Literature in regional languages in various parts of India. Regional languages that grew rapidly during this period in northern India included Hindi, Punjabi, Bengali, Assamese, Oriya, Marathi and Gujarati. 

Punjabi Literature - 

            'TWO distinct trends developed in the history of the Punjabi literature during the period between the beginning of the 13th century and the beginning of the sixteenth century. On the one hand, this period was marked by the growth of Sufi and bhakti

poetry and, on the other, by Heroic ballads and folk literature. The hymns composed by Guru Nanak in the sixteenth century imparted a proper literary form to the language. The second Sikh Guru Angad gave the Punjabi language a distinct script called Gurumukhi. The hymns composed by Guru Nanak were later incorporated in the Adi Granth by the fifth Sikh Guru Arjun in 1604.

Bengali Literature

       Folk songs called Charyapads composed between the 10th and 12th century are the earliest specimens of Bengali language. By the fifteenth, century, three main trends developed in the Bengali literature -

(i)  Vaishnav bhakti poetry

(ii) translations and free adaptations of the epics, and,

(iii) Mangala kavya

        The first great Vaishnav bhakti poet was Chandi das (1512-32) who patronized Bengali literature. TWO Bengali poets Kavindra and Srikaranandi translated the Mahabharta into Bengali verse during their reigns. In the early years of the fifteenth century, Kritivasa Ojha produced a Bengali poetical contemporary of Chandidas, Vidyapathi composed his devotional songs in the Maithili dialect but many of his songs were later absorbed-into Bengali under the influence of the Vaishnava movement. Chaitanya and his movement gave further impetus to the growth of the Vaishnava literature in Bengali. The second major trend in the history of Bengali literature which began from the early fifteenth century drew inspiration from the epics and other  Sanskrit scriptures. The third trend in the Bengali literature consisted of the emergence of Mangala kavya. These are sectarian political narratives and focus on the conflicts and rivalries among gods and goddesses. But they do contain humanistic elements, too, since they highlight popular aspirations and sufferings. 

Assamese Literature

Hema Sarasvati was the first poet of the Assamese language. She composed Prahladacharita and1 Hara-Gauri Samvada during the later part of the 13th century. Her contemporary poet was Harihara Vipra who chose episodes from the Ramayana and the Mahabharata for his poetry. The growth of the vaishnava bhakti movement under Sankaradeva in the second part of the fifteenth century made a considerable contribution to the Assamese literature. Kirtana ghosa is regarded as the most important Vaishnava religious text written in the Assamese language. It is an anthology of devotional songs, most of which were composed by Sankardeva but other poets also made their contributions. Sankaradeva also wrote many dramas (Ankiya Nat) which were based on the Purana episodes. 

Oriya Literature 

           It was during the 13th-14th centuries that the Oriya language assumed a literary character. Saraladasa (14th century) was the first great poet of Orissa. He composed the Oriya Mahabharata which is regarded as a great epic by the people of Orissa. Oriya literature began to enter into a new phase from the beginning of the 16th - century when the Vaishnava bhakti movement grew there under Chaitanya's influence. Many of Chaitanya's disciples translated or adapted Sanskrit works on bhakti into the Oriya language. One of the close associates of Chaitanya was Jagannath Das who became the greatest Oriya literary figure of his time. His Oriya translation of the Bhagavata Purana became popular among the people. 

Marathi Literature

Early Marathi literature was dominated by Saiva nathpanthis. Two earliest Marathi texts - Viveka darpana and the Gorakhagita -belonged to. the Nath Panth tradition. The Varkari bhakti saint-poet of Maharashtra further developed the bhakti literature in the Marathi language. The first among them was Jnanadeva (13th century). He wrote a commentary on the Bhagavad Gita. Another saint-poet belonging to the varkari tradition was Namdev (1270-1350). He composed a large number of Abhangas (short lyrical poems) in Marathi. He traveled to the north and later his verses were included in the Sikh scripture, the Adi Granth. Two other great saint-poets of medieval Maharashtra, Eknath (1548-1600) and Tukaram (1598-1649) belong to the Mughal period: they also made substantial contributions to the growth of the Marathi literature.

Gujarati Literature

Both Rajasthani and Gujarati languages emerged from old Western Rajasthani. During this phase, two main literary forms developed in the Gujarati literature - the prabhanda or the narrative poem and the muktaka or the short poem. The second phase in the history of the Gujarati literature began in the late fifteenth century with the spread of the Vaishnava bhakti poetry. Narasimha Mehta (1414-1480) was a great Gujarati bhakti poet. He made use of his poetry to popularize Vaishnava bhakti in Gujarat.

EHI - 3

5th Part  (Block7)

Q.  Who were the Afaqis and the Deccanis? To what extent could they be held responsible for the decline of the Bahmani kingdom? 

Q. Who was Afaqis? Examine the conflict between Afaqis and Dakhanis in the Bahmani kingdom. 

A.     Nobles played a crucial role not only as consolidators but also as kingmakers in the Sultanate. Every Sultan's interest was to win the loyalty of his nobles. The same tradition continued in the Bahmani kingdom as well. Right from Alauddin Bahman Shah's reign there three factions: one which helped Alauddin Bahman Shah in establishing an independent kingdom in the Deccan; the other was the Tughluq faction and the third faction comprised of local chiefs and vassals who had personal interests.

             From Alauddin Mujahid's reign (1375-78) onwards, a new factor was introduced in the composition of the nobility, i.e. the Afaqis. This word means 'universal'-persons who were uprooted and hence did not belong to any region. These Afaqis had migrated from Iran, Transoxiana, and Iraq. But it was during Ghiyasuddin Tahamtan's reign, in 1397, that the real clash between the Dakhnis and the Afaqis began when the Sultan appointed many Afaqis to higher posts: for example, Salabat Khan was appointed the governor of Berar. Appointment of the Afaqis to such high posts which were earlier held by the Dakhnis greatly raised dissatisfaction among the old nobility and the Turkish faction under the leadership of Taghalchin.  Taghalchin succeeded in reducing their influence as early as 1397 when he successfully conspired the murder of Ghiyasuddin and again Dakhnis who were the locals who had the upper hand. Ahmad 1 (1422-36) who for the first time

appointed Khalaf Hasan Basri, an Afaqi (with whose help he got the throne), to the highest office of wakil-i Sultanat and conferred on him the highest title of malik-ut tujjar (prince of merchants). This phenomenal rise was the result of the continuous expression of loyalty shown by the Afaqis compared to the Dakhnis. The Afaqis helped him in his escape during his Vijaynagar campaign and were suitably rewarded much to the anger of Dakhanis. Ahmad 1 recruited a special force of the Afaqi archers. Similar other favors were also showered on them. This policy created great resentment among the Dakhnis. Clashes between these two groups can be seen during Ahmad's Gujarat campaign when, on account of the non-cooperation of the Dakhnis, the Bahmani arms had to face defeat. This gulf widened further during Ahmad 2’s reign. At the time of the attacks of the Khandesh army on account of the noncooperation of the Dakhnis, only the Afaqis could be despatched. Humayun Shah (1458-1461) tried to maintain equilibrium between the two factions. During Ahmad Ill's reign (1461-b5 A.D.), the Dakhnis felt that much power was concentrated into the hands of the Afaqis with Khwaja-i Jahan Turk, Malik-ut tujjar and Mahmud Gawan at the helm of affairs. On the other hand, the Afaqis were dissatisfied because the power which they enjoyed under Ahmad 11's reign was greatly reduced under the latter's successor. Mahmud Gawan, the chief minister of Muhammad I11 (1463-1482), also tried to maintain the equilibrium between the two. But after Mahmud Gawan,  the equilibrium was disturbed, the successive weak kings became puppets in the hands of one group or other.  During Shihabuddin Mahmud's reign (1482-Ma), the clash reached its climax. While the king showed his distinct inclination for the Afaqis, the Dakhnis joined hands with the Habshi(Abyssinian) faction. The latter, in 1487, in a-desperate bid attempted to kill the king but failed. It resulted in a large-scale massacre of the Dakhnis which continued for three days. All these factional fights weakened the center and there were continuous rebellion and anarchy. Shihabuddin's death (1518) provided these nobles almost a free hand in their provinces. Finally, Ibrahim Adil Shah of Bijapur was the first to claim his independence in 1537. Thus began the physical disintegration of the Bahmani Sultanate.

Q.  Describe the main features of Nayankara and Ayagar systems under the Vijayanagara rulers. 

A.  The Nayankara System

The nayankara system was an important characteristic of the Vijaynagar political organization. The military chiefs or warriors held the title of nayaka or amaranayaka. Thus, according to scholars, the nayakas of Vijaynagar as warriors holding an office (kara) bestowed on them by the central government on condition of rendering military service. Amaranayankara was a designation. Conferred on a military officer or chief (nayaka) who had under his control a specified number of troops. These nayaks possessed revenue rights over land or territory called amaram (amaramakara or amaramahali). In the Tamil country and also in the Vijaynagar empire, the area of land thus alienated under this tenure was about 3/4th. The obligations and activities of the nayakas were among others, giving gifts to temples, repair, and building of tanks, reclamation of wasteland and collection of dues from temples The Tamil inscription, however, do not refer to dues given to the king or his officials by the nayakas.

The Ayagar System 

The ayagars were village servants or functionaries and constituted of groups of families. These were headmen (reddi or gauda, maniyam), accountant (karnam senabhova) and watchmen (talaiyari). They were given a portion of or plot in a village. Sometimes they had to pay a fixed rent, but generally these plots were manya or tax-free as no regular customary tax was imposed on their agricultural income. In exceptional cases, direct payments in kind were made for services performed by village functionaries. Other village servants who performed essential services and skills for the village community were also paid by assigning plots of land (like washerman and priest). The village servants who provided ordinary goods and services were leather workers whose products included leather bags used in lift-irrigation devices (kiapila or mohte), potter, blacksmith, carpenter, waterman (niranikkar: who looked after the maintenance of irrigation channels and supervised bankers and money-lenders). The distinguishing feature of the ayagar system is that the special allocation of income from land and specific cash payments were for the first time provided to village servants holding a particular office.

Q.  Discuss the salient features of local administration of the Vijayanagara 

A.   The local institutions of the earlier period (e.g., sabha, Nadu and lur). The powers of the territorial assembly (Nadu), as well as the village assemblies (Sabha and ur), were weakened during the time of the later Cholas. During the Vijaynagar period, these institutions did not completely disappear when the nayankara and ayagar systems came into prominence.

Nayankara System - The nayankara system was an important characteristic of the Vijaynagar political organization. The Vijaydagar inscriptions and the later manuscripts refer to the nayakas as territorial magnates with political aspirations which at times conflicted with the aim of the rulers.

The Ayagar System

It has already been pointed out that during the Vijaynagar period, autonomous local institutions, especially in the Tamil country, suffered a set-back. In pre-Vijaynagar days in Karnataka and Andhra local institutions possessed lesser autonomy as compared to Tamil country. During the Vijaynagar period in Karnataka, too local

territorial divisions underwent a change but the ayagar system continued and became widely prevalent throughout the macro-region. It spread in the Tamil country during the 15-16th century as a result of the declining power of Nadu and nattar.

Q.  Write a detailed note on the establishment & consolidation of the Vijayanagar Empire. 

A.      The state of Vijayanagar came into existence in 1336 with Harihara as its king. Soon this state developed into a powerful Vijaynagar empire. The focus of struggle among the local powers was the Krishna Godavari delta, Kaveri basin, the Tungabhadra doab & the Konkan region, the latter known for its fertility and access to high seas. During the 8-13th century, the struggle was between the Rashtrakutas and the Pallavas while the following centuries saw Vijaynagar and Bahmani kingdoms locking horns. The Bahmanis compelled the Vijaynagar rulers to expand laterally westward and eastward across the peninsula from the main center of their power on the Tungabhadra. The Vijaynagar rulers also found it difficult to crush the Bahmani power in Raichur and Tungabhadra doab because of the latter's alliance with the Velamas of Rajakonda in Warangal. These circumstances prevented Vijaynagar from advancing towards the north and forced it to expand laterally eastward and westward across the peninsula and southwards into the Tamil country. Later however this alliance broke up which enabled Vijaynagar to expand at the cost

of Bahmanis.

Early phase - On account of constant clashes, the Vijaynagar boundaries kept on changing. Between 1336-1422, major conflicts took place between Vijaynagar and the Bahmanis with Telugu-Choda chiefs siding with the latter while the Velamas of Rajakonda and the Reddis of Rajahmundry joined hands with Vijaynagar. This tilted the balance largely in favor of the latter. During 1422-46, clash over the annexation of Raichur doab started between the

Vijaynagar and the Bahmani rulers which resulted in Vijaynagar defeat. This greatly exposed the weaknesses of the Vijaynagar arms. It forced its rulers to reorganize the army by enlisting Muslim archers and engaging better quality horses. During this period the entire Kondavidu region was annexed to the Vijaynagar empire. 

Between 1465-1509 again, the Raichur doab became the cockpit of clashes. In the beginning, Vijaynagar had to surrender the western ports, i.e. Goa, Chaul and Dabhol to the Bahmanis. But, around 1490, the internal disintegration of the Bahmani kingdom began with the establishment of Bijapur. Taking advantage of the situation, Vijaynagar succeeded in occupying the Tungabhadra region. 

       The Gajapatis of Orissa were an important power in-the eastern region. They had in their possession areas like Kondavidu, Udayagiri, and Masulipatam. The Vijaynagar rulers succeeded in expelling the Gajapatis as far as the Godavari and occupied Kondavidu, Udayagiri, and Masulipatam. But soon in 1481, Masulipatam was lost to the Bahmanis. 

Krishnadeva Raya, 1509-29

This phase is marked by the achievements of Vijaynagar’s greatest ruler Krishnadeva Raya (1 509-29). During this period; the power of the Bahmanis declined, leading to the emergence of five kingdoms. This helped Krishnadeva Raya greatly in capturing Kovilkonda and Raichw from the Adil Shahis of Bijapur and Gulbarga and Bidar from the Bahrnanis. Krishnadeva Raya also recovered Udayagiri, Kondavidu (south of fiver Krishna), Nalgonda (in Andhra Pradesh) Telingana and Warangal were taken, from the Gajapatis. 

Q.  What role did religion and religious classes play in the political, social and economic life of the Vijaynagar empire.

A.    Religion and religious classes played an important role in the political, social and economic life of the Viiaynagar empire. 

Ritual Kingship

It is generally emphasized that the principle of strict adherence ta dharm was the chief constituent and distinguishing feature of the Vijaynagar state. But very often it was the Hindu rulers against whom the Vijaynagar rulers had to fight, e.g. the Gajapatis of Orissa. The most strategically placed contingents of the Vijaynagar

army were under the charge of Muslim commanders who played an important role in the victory of Vijaynagar against its Hindu riyals. The successful military deeds of the Vijaynagar rulers led them to assume the title of digvijayans. Vijaynagar kingship was symbolic in the sense that the Vijaynagar rulers exercised their control through their overlords over a region beyond the prime center of their authority. This symbolism was manifested through the instrument of religion which was used to ensure loyalty from the people. For example, ritual kingship is best exemplified in the mahanavami festival. This was an annual royal ceremony lasting for nine days between 15 September and 15 October. It culminated in the dusserah festival on the tenth day. Important personages (e.g., military commanders) from the peripheral parts participated in the festival. Through this festival, recognition of the sovereignty of Vijaynagar rulers by peripheral parts of the empire was strengthened. Though the Brahmans participated in the festival, their role was not predominant. The ritual rites of the festival were largely performed by the king himself. 

Political Role of the Brahmans

A distinct feature of the Vijaynagar state was the importance of the Brahmans as political and secular personnel rather than ritual leaders. Most of the Durga dannaiks (in charge of forts) were Brahmans. Literary sources substantiate the theory that fortresses were significant during this period and were placed under the control of the Brahmans, especially of Telugu origins. During this period, the majority of educated Brahmans desired to become government servants as administrators and accountants which offered them good career prospects. The Imperial Secretariat was totally manned by the Brahmans. The Brahmans also played an important role as military commanders in the Vijaynagar army. For example, under Krishnadeva Raya Brahman Timma received economic support as he was an integral part of the political system. Thus Brahmans constructed and commanded fortresses in different parts of the empire for which they were assigned revenue of some crown villages. 

Relationship between Kings, Sects, and Temples -

To establish effective control over the distant Tamil region, the Vijaynagar filer sought the help of the Vaishnava sectarian leaders who hailed from the Tamil country. For legitimizing their power in this region, it was necessary for the rulers, who were aliens in the Tamil region, to establish contacts with the basic Tamil religious organisation-the temples. The relationship between kings, sects, and temples can be explained in terms of four assertions :

 I) Temples were basic for sustaining kingship.

 2) Sectarian leaders were the connecting links between kings and temples.

 3) Though the routine supervision of the temples was done by local sectarian groups, the task of solving disputes concerning temples was in the hands of the king.

4) The intervention of the king in the above matter was administrative, not legislative. During 1350-1650, numerous temples sprang up in south India. Through grants or gifts to the temples in the .form of material resources (a part of the agricultural

produce of specified villages), a particular type of agrarian economy evolved under the Vijaynagar rule.

Q.  Kingdom of Jaunpur

A.    The city of Jaunpur on the banks of river Gomti was founded by Feroz Shah Tughluq during his second Bengal campaign (1359-60). This city became a strong power-base, and it soon evolved as a rival to Delhi for some time. Malik Sarwar, a noble of Feroz Shah Tughluq, took full advantage of the succession tussle among the sons of Feroz and rose to the high position of wazir under Sultan Muhammad Shah (1390-94). The invasion of Timur, which virtually shattered the kingdom of Delhi, gave Malik Sarwar an opportunity to declare his independence in Jaunpur. He extended his hold over Kol (Aligarh), Sambhal and Rapri (in Mainpuri district). He brought the rulers of Jajnagar and Gwalior under him. His son, Ibrahim Shah Sharqi (1401-40) efficiently expanded the territories of the kingdom. He took Kanauj in 1406. He also captured Kalpi (1414) and successfully subdued Ganesh, the ruler of Bengal, in 1414. During the closing years of his reign (1437), he again turned his attention towards Delhi and captured some of its neighboring Parganas. Bahlol Lodi annexed Jaunpur in 1483-84 and placed it under the charge of. Mubarak Nohani.

Q.  Trace the emergence of Malwa as an independent kingdom after the decline of the Delhi Sultanate.

A.  The decline of the Sultanate paved the way for the emergence of the independent kingdom of Malwa. Dilawar Khan Ghori, (d. A.D. 1406), the Tughluq governor of Malwa, assumed independence in the year A.D. 1401-2 and declared himself the king of Malwa. He extended the boundaries of his kingdom by occupying Nimar, Sauyar, Damoh, and Chanderi. Dilawar Khan married his daughter to Ali Sher Khalji, the son of Malik Raja Faruqi of Khandesh, and took his (Faruqi ruler's) daughter for his son Alp Khan. These matrimonial alliances helped him in safeguarding his southeastern frontier. By maintaining friendly relations with Muzaffar Shah of Gujarat, he successfully saved Malwa from attacks, but soon after his death in A.D. 1407, Malwa fell a prey to the imperialistic designs of Muzaffar Gujarati. But in 1408, Hoshang Shah (1406-35) succeeded in regaining control over the Malwa throne. Hoshang Shah had entered into a matrimonial alliance with the Muslim ruler of Kalpi to use the latter as a buffer between Jaunpur-Malwa and Delhi-Malwa.

             Hoshang Shah's successor Muhammad Shah proved incompetent. During his brief reign bf one year, the court of Malwa became a hotbed of intrigues leading to disastrous results. The chaos culminated in his murder (1436) by his noble Mahmud

Khalji. Thus came the end of the Ghorid rule itself. Mahmud Khalji after successfully tackling the nobles and consolidating his internal position looked for further extension of Malwa. 

           Rana Kumbha, Mewar king had promised Umar Khan, son of Hoshang Shah, to install him in place of Mahmud Khalji. In the battle of Sarangpur (1437), Mahmud Khalji was defeated and taken prisoner. Later, Mahmud Khalji took advantage of the confusion that emerged in Mewar after Ranmal's death: he attacked Mewar in 1442. Though Mahmud had occupied Gagraun (1444) and Mandalgarh (1457), Rana Kumbha was able to keep his territory intact and well-defended. This rivalry continued unabated. Ghiyas Shah (1469-1500), the son and successor of Mahmud khalji paid more attention to consolidation rather than conquest. As a result, with the exception of a brief tussle with the Rana of Mewar (1473), the period was of a long peace.

Q.  Discuss the characteristic features of the regional states of North India in the 14th— 15th centuries. Can they be truly called the successor states of the Sultanate?

A.    The foremost feature of the 14-15th-century polity was 'vertical' penetration rather than the 'horizontal' one, i.e. horizontally the area under their control was smaller compared to the Sultanate but within their area of influence they 'vertically '

penetrated deep into the rural areas. Under regional rulers, the maximum area lay outside their effective control; even where they exercised a good measure of control, there, too; they often faced some difficulty. On this basis, we can divide their domain into three kinds:

i) Where land revenue was extracted from the peasants directly through revenue officials, the state's influence and control.was of a high order.

ii) Areas where revenue was collected through local chiefs, the state's control was still good enough.

iii) The states that were satisfied with the tribute only. the degree of control was minimal. This relationship had a direct bearing on regional rulers' relations with the nobles, tributary chiefs or rajas and local aristocracy (the so-called Zamindars, muqaddams, etc.). 

Another important feature was a frequent and fierce struggle between the Muslim-Muslim and Hindu-Hindu rulers rather than between Hindu-Muslim rulers. For example, Gujarat’s traditional enemies were Muslim rulers of Malwa and Jaunpur, there was continuous warfare between Kamata and Ahom rulers; Orissa rulers continuously faced the might of the Vijayanagar rulers and in Rajputana, quarrels took the inter-clan character. They never showed unity even in dire needs. 

NORTH INDIAN KINGDOMS AS SUCCESSOR STATES - Generally, the regional kingdoms are considered as 'successor' states of the Sultan. Some of the founders of the regional kingdoms at one point of time were either governor of the Sultanate or had served under them in some capacity. The founders of the regional kingdoms of Gujarat, Malwa, and Jaunpur respectively, served as governors under the Tughluq Sultans. Besides, Bengal rulers also had direct and continuous links with the Sultanate. But the Rajputana states, though always a prey to the Sultanate onslaught. never accepted the complete hegemony of the Sultans. As and when the opportunity arose they threw off the Sultanate yoke and succeeded in maintaining heir clannish character. Similar was the cast with Sind. Under the Sultanate pressure, the Sind rulers accepted the suzerainty of Iltutmish; Muhammad Tughluq and Feroz Tughluq, but for all practical purposes Sumirah and Sammah rulers ruled independently. Their development was entirely independent of the Sultanate.

EHI - 3

4th Part 

Q.  Give details of central and Provincial Administration Under the Sultans. 

A.   Central administration

Provincial administration - As the State became more settled and efforts were made for greater centralization, provincial administration also underwent a change. A separation between fiscal and military responsibilities started evolving. During the reign of Muhammad Tughluq, fiscal responsibilities were partially withdrawn from the muqtis or walis and placed under central officers. Muhammad Tughluq also ordered that the salary of the soldiers maintained by iqta holders be paid by the diwan-i wizarat to prevent fraud by the officers. Greater control also came to be exercised over fiscal matters. The diwan’s office, at the centre, received and examined detailed statements regarding income and expenditure in the provinces. It supervised the work of the revenue officials in the provinces. The provinces had a sahib-i diwan, whose office kept books of account and submitted information to the centre. It was assisted by officials. The entire lower revenue staff was called karkun.

           By the end of the thirteenth century, contemporary sources refer to an administrative division, known as shiqq. However, by the time of Sher Shah (1540-1 545 A.D.) shiqq had emerged as a well-defined administrative unit, known as sarkar. Administrative officials, mentioned with respect to shiqq, were shiqqdar and faujdar.

           Chaudhuri was the head of a hundred villages. This was the nucleus of the administrative unit later called pargana. The village was the smallest unit of administration. The main village functionaries were khot, muqaddam (headman) and patwari. The judicial administration of the sub-division was patterned on that of the centre. Courts of the qazi and Sadr functioned in the provinces. The kotwal maintained law and order. At the village level, the panchayat heard civil cases.

Q.  Write a note on the currency system of the Delhi Sultans.

A.   The establishment of the Delhi Sultanate was marked by a considerable growth of the money economy which accelerated particularly in the first half of the 14th century. Since the growth of the money economy in simple words means larger use of currency in transactions (monetisation is another term for this phenomenon), a large scale minting of gold, silver and copper coins that followed the foundation of the Delhi Sultanate was an attendant process of the monetisation of the Indian economy. The period prior to the foundation of the Delhi Sultanate was marked by the scarcity of coinage, particularly of pure silver. Except for an increase in the number of coins stamped, no changes were introduced in the beginning. The coins continued to bear the image of goddess Lakshmi or bull-and-horseman, etc. Only the name of the new ruler in a corrupt form got inscribed over it in Nagri script. These coins were called Dehliwal.

         Iltutmish (1210-36) is credited for standardizing the coinage of the Delhi Sultanate. The currency system established by him in its essentials survived the Delhi Sultanate. He introduced gold and silver tankas and a copper jital that was reckoned at 1/48th of tanka in North India and 1/50th in the Deccan after the conquest of Devagiri. A firm ratio of 1:10 between gold and silver appears to have been established. The Sultanate mints generally uttered coins in three metals: gold, silver and billon (copper mixed with a very small quantity of silver). The main coins were tanka and jital but some smaller currencies were also in circulation. Barani mentions dangs and dirams in use at the capital Delhi. The equation between these currencies in the north has been worked out as:

             1 silver tanka = 48 jital = 192 dangs = 480 dirams

The gold and silver remitted from Bengal was the main source of coinage during the 13th century. The seizure of treasure hoards in northern India and later in the Deccan was the other major source of silver and gold for coinage. The Sultanate mints should not only have coined government money but also stamped bullion and foreign coins brought the private merchant.

 The silver currency remained dominant until the reign of Alauddin Khalji. From Ghiyasuddin TughluQ's reign, a decline in silver coinage in relation to gold and billon set in. Under Muhammad Tughluq gold coinage overshadowed the silver, and silver coinage practically disappeared under Feroz Tughluq. In the 15th century, billon coinage dominated (the Lodis (1451-1526) uttered no other coins).

Token Currency of Muhammad Tughluq

The only major innovation in the currency system established by Iltutmish was made by Muhammad Tughluq. The Sultan introduced a coin of copper and brass alloy and reckoned it at the value of a silver tanka. This coin for the first time carried an inscription in Persian. This new currency whose face value was much higher than its intrinsic value (that is, the value of the metal it was made of) is termed as token currency. Muhammad Tughluq's experiment, too, met total failure perhaps owing to the fact that the new currency could easily be forged. However, the Sultan accepted the failure with grace and exchanged all the token currency brought to the treasury with pure currency.

Q.  Discuss the chief characteristics of Alauddin Khaljis market control policy.

A.   Set of seven regulations were introduced by Alauddin Khalji which came to be known as market-control measures. The Sultan fixed the prices of all commodities from grain to cloth, slaves, cattle, etc. (Regulation 1). These prices were really to be enforced since the Sultan carefully made all arrangements for making the measure a success. A controller of the market (shahna-i mandi), barids (intelligence officers) and munhiyan (secret spies) were appointed (Reg. 2). The grain merchants were placed under the shahna-i mandi and sureties were taken from them (Reg. 4). The Sultan himself was to receive daily reports separately from these three sources (Reg. 7). Regrating (ihtikar) was prohibited (Reg. 5). While ensuring strict control in the market, the Sultan did not overlook the more essential requirement, namely the regular supply of grains and essential commodities. 

           Obviously, the grain merchants could bring supplies to the market only if they could get the grains and that, too, at sufficiently low prices. It was apparently for this reason that the Sultan decreed such rigour in the realization of land revenue in the Doab that the peasants should be forced to sell the grain to the grain merchants at the side of the field (Reg. 6). The Sultan established granaries in Delhi and in Chhain in Rajasthan. The land tax from the khalisa in the Doah was realised in kind. The grain went to the state granaries (Reg. 3). The Multanis who were cloth merchants were given 20 lakhs of tankas as an advance loan to purchase and bring a cloth to the market. 

            The Sultan succeeded in maintaining low prices and ample supplies in the market due to various market measures. The Sultan was anxious to have a large army and to take other precautions such as the building of forts at strategic places, fortification wall around Delhi, etc. against the Mongol invasions. If numerous additional cavalrymen and troops were to be employed at the prevailing

salaries, the drain from the state treasury was to exhaust it totally. The salaries could be reduced only if the prices were kept at a sufficiently low level.

       Since the main army encampment was in Delhi and most bf the royal troops were to be stationed in or around Delhi, the main area of price control was Delhi itself. However, since the Supplies of cheap grain were to be made available to the grain merchants in the surrounding districts of the Doab the low prices ought to be prevalent there as well. 

       The market control did not survive its enforcer and we do not hear about it after Alauddin Khalji's time. A very efficient and alert administration was imperative for the success of price control. Therefore, one possible reason for it is not surviving could be the lack of sufficiently competent administration. Another reason was since the prevalence of low prices implies lower revenues from the low-price zone, the price control was viable as long as the zone of low prices was restricted and most of the expenditure was concentrated there. With the Mongols no more, remaining a threat, the army and the expenditure were to be dispersed Far widely and not to be concentrated at and around Delhi alone. The interest of the state treasury was now to dismantle price control measures.

Q.  Economic policies by Allauddin khalji

A.  Above answer for urban people

Agrarian measures by Allauddin - The Islamic land tax with which the new rulers of India were familiar was kharaj. The kharaj was essentially a share in the produce of the land and not rent on the land.  His attempt was to increase the revenue collection by enhancing the demand, introducing direct collection and cutting down the leakages to the intermediaries.  The demand was thus fixed in kind but realization appears to be mostly in cash. Barani informs us that the revenue collectors were ordered to demand the

revenue with such rigour that the peasants should be forced to sell their produce immediately at the side of the fields. At another place, Barani says that Alauddin Khalji brought the Doab into khalisa apd the tax (mahsul) from there was spent on paying the cash salaries to the soldiers. Yet there is a rather contradictory statement by the same author that the Sultan ordered that the peasant should pay tax in kind and not in cash.

Q.  Analyse the internal and foreign trade in India during the Sultanate period. 

A.  Inland Trade

The inland trade developed at two levels : 

(a) the short distance village-town trade-in commodities of bulk, &

(b) long-distance inter-town trade in high-value goods.

               The urban centers were dependent on the supply of food grains and raw material for manufactures from the surrounding villages whereas the villages had to sell the agricultural products to receive cash for meeting the land revenue demand. The peculiar nature of this trade was the one-way the flow of commodities. While the towns received grains & raw material from the villages in the vicinity they had no need to send their products in exchange for the villages which were by and large self-sufficient. This one-way trade was owing to the land revenue demand imposed upon villages which naturally led to a continuous drain on the rural sector and made the towns dependent on villages. The turnover of this trade was high in terms of volume but was low in terms of value.

             The inter-town trade was mainly in luxury articles and was thus high-value trade. The manufactures of One town were taken to another for example. the capital received distilled wines from Kol (Aligarh) and Meerut, muslin (fine cloth) from Devagiri and striped cloth from Lakhnauti (Bengal). Similarly, ordinary cloth came from Awadh and betel-leaf from Malwa (twenty-four d!ays journey from Delhi). Candy sugar was supplied to Multan from Delhi and Lahore and ghi from Sirsa (in Haryana). The long-distance inter-town trade also carried goods coming from other countries.

Foreign Trade: Seaborne and Overland

         During the Sultanate period, overland and overseas trade were in a flourishing state. Seaborne Trade. The Khalji annexation of Gujarat enlarged trade relations between the Delhi Sultanate and the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea Gujarat was connected with the Persian Gulf as well as the Red Sea. Hormuz and Basra were the chief ports for the ships passing through the Persian Gulf, while the ports of Aden, Mocha and Jedda along the Red Sea were important for Gujarat. Through these ports, commodities moved on to Damascus and Aleppo, on the one hand, and Alexandria on the other. Aleppo and Alexandria opened up to the Mediterranean Sea with linkages to Europe. Merchandise of Gujarat was also carried towards the East - the port of Malacca situated at the Malacca straits and Bantam and Achin in the Indonesian archipelago.

            The main export from Gujarat to Malacca was the coloured cloths manufactured in Cambay and other Gujarat towns. These clothes were in demand in these places. In exchange, the Gujarati merchants came back with spices grown there. This pattern of "spices for colored cloths" continued even after the Portuguese advent in the Asian waters. The ports of Bengal had trading relations with China, Malacca and the Far East. Textiles, sugar and silk fabrics were the most important commodities exported from Bengal. 

Coastal Trade

              Coastal trade to flourished right from Sindh to Bengal, touching Gujarat, Malabar and Coromandel coasts in between. .This provided an opportunity for the exchange of regional products along the coastal line distinct from inland inter-regional trade.

Overland Trade

Multan was the major trading 'center for overland trade. India was connected to Central Asia, Afghanistan and Persia through the Multan-Quetta route.

Imports and Exports

The two principal items of import were : 

(a) horses - that was always in demand for

cavalry, since superior horses were not bred in India and the Indian climate, was not well suited to Arabian and Central Asian horses. They were primarily imported from Zofar (Yemen), Kis, Hormuz, Aden, and Persia;

 (b) precious metals viz. gold and. silver, especially silver that was not at all mined in India but for which there was a high demand not only for metallic currency but also for fashioning luxury items. The Sultanate India mainly exported grain and textiles. Some of the Persian Gulf regions totally depended on India for their food supply. Besides, slaves were exported to Central Asia and indigo to Persia along with numerous other commodities. Precious stones like agates were exported from Cambay.

Q.  Describe the new techniques introduced by the Turks in the field of textile production. Also, discuss their significance. 

A.   The most important technological revolution in the textile sector was the introduction of the spinning-wheel (charkha) through the agency of the Muslims during the 13th-14th centuries. Charkha did not exist in Ancient India. This new contribution. however, it did not displace the spindle rather it only accelerated the latter's rotation. The spindle was, attached to the wooden frame of the charkha at its one end to be set in motion by the belt which was wrapped over the wheel at the other end of the frame. connecting it to the spindle. Thus. the charkha combined within itself the element of power-transmission (through belt-drive) and the principle of flywheel resulting in differential speeds of rotation. This is one of the revolutionary development introduced by the Turks. It greatly enhanced productivity due to technology up-gradation.

           A spinning-wheel could produce yarn six-fold more than the spindle during the same unit of time. This must-have resulted in a greater output of yarn and constantly more cloths. It must be pointed out that the yarn from spindle was of a very fine quality whereas the charkha produced coarse yarn for coarse cloths.

Weaving

A horizontal loom of throw-shuttle type was used for the simple weave. This loom allowed the weaver to employ his otherwise idle feet to lift and depress the sets of warp threads while his hands worked mainly upon the shuttle and the shed. This increased the pace of weaving.

Dyeing and Printing

Various colours derived from vegetable and mineral sources were used for dyeing. Indigo, madder and lakh, etc. were widely employed. Indigo was used for both bleaching and dyeing. For fast colours, many articles like alum were added. The Indian dyer (rangrez) employed many techniques like immersion, tie-and-dye

(bandhana), etc. But block-printing (chhapa) was perhaps unknown in Ancient India. Scholars credit the Muslims with its diffusion in India.

Q.  Examine-in short the features of agricultural technology during the 13-15 century. 

A.  Plough - The entire frame earlier was of timber, the ploughshare/courter was made of iron. This metallic piece immensely helped in the tillage of comparatively harder soil. The common technique was the plough with an iron share was drawn by two yoked oxen. 

Sowing -

For sowing, the method of broadcasting was known. The practice was to scatter seeds manually by taking them out from a cloth-bag slung over shoulders.

Harvesting, Threshing and Winnowing

Harvesting was performed with a sickle, and threshing by using oxen who walked round and round over the ears put on the threshing floor. "Wind power" was exploited in winnowing in order to separate the chaff from the grain.

Irrigational Devices

There were many sources of water for the purpose of irrigating fields. Rainwater was a natural source. Ponds and tanks received this water which was used for irrigation. Water channels formed by inundation, too, served the same purpose. But the most important controlled source was the water of the wells, especially in North India. Almost all the irrigational devices were oriented towards drawing water from wells. Broadly, there were five devices or techniques to raise water from wells:

i)  The most simple technique was to draw water with rope and bucket by using hands without any mechanical aid. Obviously, then, the bucket was small in size and, thus, this operation would not have adequately served to water large fields.

ii)  The second method was the employment of pulleys (charkhi) combined to the rope-bucket contraption which was, once again, activated manually. Undoubtedly, the pulleys needed a lesser amount of human energy and, therefore, comparatively larger bags or buckets could have been attached to the rope. It was also used for domestic purposes, especially by women.

iii)  An improved method of the rope-bucket-pulley contraption was the employment of a pair of oxen to replace human-power. At this stage, it had become a specialized device for drawing water intended specifically for irrigation. In some areas of North India, it is still in operation known as charasa. The latter is a huge bag that gives an idea of the immense quantity of water raised from the well in one single haul-up.

iv)  The fourth technique was what is considered to be semi-mechanical as it worked on the First Class Lever principle. A long rope is lashed to the fork of an upright beam or trunk of a tree (especially meant for this purpose) to put it in a swinging position. The bucket is fastened to a rope whose other end is tied to these of-the the swinging pole hovering over the well. The pole's other end carries a 'counterweight', a little heavier than the bucket when filled with water. Thus, the fulcrum forms at the center of the pole, with weight and 'counterweight' (Effort) at its two ends. This contraption requires only a little effort on the part of the person operating it.

V)  The fifth water-lifting method is called saqiya or 'Persian Wheel'. None of the four mechanisms described above required wheels as their basic components. This - water-wheel could well claim to be called a water machine because of the employment of the gar system. In India, Its earliest form was one wheel with pitchers or pots of clay attached around the rim of the wheel It was called araghatta or arahatta. In the second stage, there was a chain or garland(Hindi: mala) of pots was provided which was long enough to reach the water level of the well. At the third and final stage, we find three developments to have taken place:

a) addition of two more wheels;

b) gear mechanism; and

c) the use of animal power.

Q.  Urban craft production in Delhi Sultanate --- 100

Q.  Organisation of non-agricultural production during the Sultanate period 100

Q.  Mention the new technologies introduced by the Turks in India. What were its impacts? --20

A.  Urban crafts - 

Papermaking

During the Delhi Sultanate, the paper was used for many purposes, especially for books. farmans and numerous commercial and administrative documents. Paper was available on a large scale so much so that sweetmeat-sellers of Delhi delivered sweets to the buyers in paper packets called purya. The practice of writing boob on paper was accompanied by the craft of bookbinding which was an innovation in India.

Glass Manufacturing

With the Muslim advent, pharmaceutical phials, jars and vessels started coming to India from the Islamic countries. 

Ship navigation

For navigation, the magnetic compass was a great contribution which the Muslims diffused in India.

Tin Coating

Domestic utensils of copper (and brass) are prone to acid poisoning from sour food kept in them. A coating of tin is given to them frequently, especially inside, to protect them from the chemical action of acid food. This craft came to India along with the

Turks.

Textile technology above answer.

Military Technology - Here we deal with 3 things- 
i) stirrup,
ii) horseshoe, and
iii) gunpowder

Stirrup - Proper stirrup was the contribution of the Muslims. This stirrup was first used in China around the 6th century A.D., and later it diffused into Persia and other Islamic countries during the next century. The stirrup replaced human energy with animal power, and immensely increased the warrior's ability to damage his enemy. It made possible mounted shock combat, a revolutionary new way of doing battle.

Horseshoe - It was brought by the Turks when they came to India. The horse's hoof is a constantly growing horny structure like the human nails, susceptible to breaking, splitting and shelling. In their original natural habitat horses keep their feet worn down And, hence, trimming is unnecessary. But tamed and domesticated horses when in use, require shoeing, especially in moist latitudes.

A horse with footsore will limp and, hence, of little use to the rider. Shoeing offers two advantages: first, it gives a better grip on soft ground; and secondly, the hooves get protection on rough ground.

Gunpowder and Fire Arms 

The immigrant Turks brought gunpowder to India perhaps in the late 13th or early 14th century. But it must be pointed out that even by the reign of Sultan Feroz Shah Tughluq its only use was for pyrotechny or fireworks (atashbazi), not for fire-arms or for propelling cannon-balls. Fire-arms were used for the first time during the second half of the 15th century in some regions of India like Gujarat, Malwa and the Deccan.

Construction Material and technique

Lime Mortar -

lime mortar was brought by the immigrant Muslims during the Delhi Sultanate. The basic ingredients in lime-mortar were lime (chuna) and surkhi (pounded bricks). Lime was of various kinds, according to the material from which it was extracted. The two major sources of lime were gypsum and gravel (kankar). The later was first burnt in kilns yielding quicklime. This quicklime was then treated with water to turn it into slake lime. Surkhi was added to this mix.

Arch and DomeIVaulted roofing

One result of lime mortar was the extensive use of bricks as it made the brick buildings more durable. Another important consequence was that lime mortar paved the way for the construction of true arch (mihrab). Actually,, the very arrangement of bricks or stones in making a true arch demands a strong cementing material to hold the voussoirs together. Lime mortar fulfilled this need. This explains the almost total absence of true arch in Indian buildings prior to the Turkish advent.

Q.  Describe the Agrarian Measures of Muhammad Tughluq.

A.  Muhammad Tughluq became the first Sultan to attempt to formulate an agricultural policy for promoting agriculture. He introduced the practice of giving agricultural loans named sondhar for increasing the area under plough and for digging wells for irrigation. A new ministry designated diwan-i amir-i kohi was established to promote agriculture. Its two main functions we-re to extend the area under cultivation and to reclaim the land that went out of cultivation and improving the cropping pattern. It was recommended that wheat should.be replaced by sugarcane and sugarcane by grapes and dates.