EHI - 5

Second Part 

Q  Write a note on the nature of regional polity specially in the context of Awadh.   12

A   The independent authority that emerged in the provinces in the 18th century worked with the collaborative support of different groups like the Zamindars, the merchants, etc. Merchants and money lenders who became politically important in the 18th century had an important role in the emergence of the regional political system. In the 18th century with the weakening of central authority and the collapse of the Mughal treasury, this commercial class provided the economic basis for the emergence of regional political system. They became the guarantor of money for the rulers & the nobles. The extent of penetration into the working of the administration by merchant class was fairly pronounced. The government borrowed substantial sums for its working from the commercial houses. The Agarwal bankers had complete command over the revenue matters in Benares. 

 In the case of Bengal, the house of Jagat Seths played an important role in the administration of the Bengal province. Thus the merchants and the money lenders had a share in political power in the regional polity in the eighteenth century. Parallel to the merchant class , Zamindars as a group also had a very significant role to play within the province. In the wake of the weakening imperial authority, the Zamindars consolidated their power at the local level. They began to tax markets and trade in their areas which was beyond their domain during the sunny days of the Mughal rule. The collection of revenues and the maintenance of law and order in the countryside became the concern of the Zamindars. The stability in the regional polity became dependant on the active support of the Zamindars. The Zamindars were usually supportive of the merchants and in many cases, Zamindars were also money lenders and had an investment in commerce. So their common interest tied them together. Thus the support of these two groups became essential for the ruler to maintain his authority. Another significant characteristic that is observed in the polity of Bengal and Awadh is the appointment of a large number of Hindus in the revenue administration. The manning of revenue administration by Hindu officials have been encouraged because there was less chance of resistance from the Hindus to the Nawab's authority.   

Q  Why did the French fail in the Carnatic wars? What was its effect on Indian polity?  12

A  There are several reasons for French failure in the Carnatic wars such as -

Firstly, there were the financial difficulties faced by the French Company which came in their way of making preparations to launch a fresh military offensive against the British. There were no funds to pay the troops. Already handicapped by this, the French general added to the problems of the troops by indulging in rude and haughty behavior towards them. He refused to listen to their advise and thus alienated them. Another major problem was the French had no permanent naval presence in India. On the other hand, the British had a strong naval fleet in India. What was more problematic was that, on the occasions when the French navy from Mauritius did come to the assistance of their Indian counterparts, it created fresh problems for the French Company in India. This is so because there was a lack of coordination and one up-man among the French Generals resulting in disagreements thus benefiting the British. 

One major factor that turned the tide in -Britain's favour was its recent access to the rich resources of Bengal. From this secure base they could send a constant supply of men and money to Madras and thus launch fresh military strikes against the French. Thus, Britain because of its strong navy in India; its increasing military strength and good leadership and the support they received from Government in England, and the larger resources from Bengal helped Britain to defeat French forces in Carnatic wars. 

        A major fallout of the events after the defeat of French forces in the Carnatic wars was, it exposed the weakness of the Indian regional powers. It showcased their inability to make naval intervention and also exposed the ineffectiveness of the large armies of regional power in comparison to small but disciplined European armies. In the aftermath of the third Carnatic War, the English reigned supreme over India. All their European Rivals had been eliminated and the task of subjugating Indian regional rulers started. In the east they already had a secure base at Bengal and now focused their energies towards South. Firstly, in South India Mysore was a major force to reckon with and so were the Marathas for the British. Battles against these two States became a major preoccupation with the East India company in the third and last quarters of the 18th century. By the second decade of the 19th century, the British had secured their position in South India very firmly. 

Q  How did the new state develop in Punjab? What was the nature of its polity?     12 

A  First part answer ahead Second part - 

The teachings of the Sikh Gurus laid the foundation for the Sikh polity. The movement, that had developed amongst the Sikhs to fight against the socio-economic and religious injustices in the medieval period, ultimately got transformed into a political movement during the course of the 18th century. So the nature of the Sikh polity was based on the moral ethos and the democratic traditions laid down by the Sikh Gurus.

 The reflection of this democratic tradition is found in the Sikh polity of the Misl period. It demonstrates its various features like the Gurmata, the Dal Khalsa, ruling in the name of the Khalsa, etc. The emergence of the Sikh monarchy in the 19th century in place of various independent chiefs brought further change in the nature of Sikh polity. During the 19th century, the autonomy of the individual Sardar of different principalities came to an end and a monarchy was established in the state of Punjab under Ranjit Singh. Ranjit Singh had full faith in the Sikh scriptures and the Sikh religion. But his personal faith never came his way of running the administration which was secular in its approach.

Q  Third Carnatic War                                                     6

A  The Third Carnatic war ( 1757- 1763)was a local version of the Seven Years war in Europe. The Third Carnatic War put an end to the French ambitions to create a colonial empire in India. The earlier two Carnatic wars were limited to Deccan but the third war spread in Bengal also. The British Forces were able to capture the French Settlements at Chandranagar in 1757. The decisive battle of the third Carnatic War was fought at Wandiwash on 22 January 1760. British army totally routed the French army under Lally. In the next three months, all the minor French possessions in the Carnatic had been effectively reduced by British forces. Thereafter, the French were left with no possessions in the Carnatic except Jinje and Pondicherry. Finally, in May 1760, the English laid siege to Pondicherry. After more than six months of encirclement, the French capital of Pondicherry unconditionally surrendered on 16 January 1761. Shortly thereafter Jinje and Mahe, the two French settlements on the Malabar coast also surrendered to the English leaving the French without even a toehold in India. British were now the dominant power in India.  

Q  Comment on the formation of regional polities in the 18th century with special reference to Mysore & Hyderabad.        12 

A  Along with the decline of the Mughal empire, the second major theme of the 18th Century was the emergence of regional polities. Broadly there were three kinds of states which came into prominence:

# the states which broke away from the Mughal empire,

# the new states set up by the rebels against the Mughal, and

# the independent states.

Nature of polity at Hyderabad

Hyderabad - Under Nizam-ul-mulk, the army was an important component of the polity that emerged in Hyderabad. The military commanders and their troops were tied to the political system through their individual employer, mainly the nobles. Inland revenue system, intermediaries played a significant role that have important consequences in the shaping of Hyderabad polity under the Nizams. The nobility in the Nizam's period did not have uniform criteria for career advancement. Personal relations with Nizam or military skills became very important. So to become powerful in Hyderabad, the mansab rank (as under Mughal system) did not prevent the rise of the noble. Many Zamindars or Jagirdars who could rally the smaller intermediaries behind them, could with a little military skill and diplomacy became powerful. Aiding in this process of grabbing wealth and power was a network of intermediate clients called the vakils. These vakils acted as agents between Nizam and nobles, nobles and nobles and Nizam and outside powers. Bankers, moneylenders and military commanders (usually mercenaries) played an important role in the political system of Hyderabad. They played a key role since they provided essential financial and military service. Some of the main community or caste groups amongst the financial groups were the Agarwal and Marwaris while Afghans and Arabs were prominent military groups. By threatening to withdraw support and services these individuals and groups could at their level play an important role in the balance of the power. The local chiefs under the Nizam continued to control their inherited land on the payment of tribute to the Nizam. Though they played the role of patrons like Nizams and his nobles, they were never fully integrated within the Hyderabad political system.

Mysore - Mysore in the 18th century emerged as a polity which was consolidated under military might of Haidar and Tipu. This system, however, was under constant pressure from their own inability to evolve durable solutions to the forces which were held in check due to military strength. Haidar Ali didn’t allow the local chiefs any claim to independence and if they resisted they were driven off their lands. By limiting the scope of these chiefs activities, Haidar further eroded their local base. Tipu Sultan, his son, went further in the subjugation of the poligars. After expelling them he rented out their lands to either private individuals or government officials. 

One of the important features of the Mysore administration under Haidar and Tipu was in building the base of their military-political authority by augmenting their financial resources for running the state. The land was kept under a system of survey and control. The state took measures to encourage tillers by providing adequate relief and protection. A strong system of state control was evolved where an amildar controlled the revenue administration and asufdar looked after the legalities of rent disputes. Intermediaries were removed and a direct link between the state and the peasantry was established. It helped to maximize revenue for the state. Merchants had been playing an important role in the Mysore economy. Tipu appointed asufs to train officials to run trade centers established by him for keeping trade in control.

Q   Discuss the differences in the state formation between Hyderabad and Mysore states during the 18th century.        12        A   Hyderabad, Bengal, and Awadh were the three cases where provincial governors under the Mughals set up independent states. The breakaway from Delhi didn’t take place suddenly rather it occurred in stages - the revolt of individuals was followed by that of the social groups, communities and finally the regions. The Zamindari revolts in the provinces against imperial demands triggered off the breakaway. Governors who were appointed by Mughals did not get support from the center and tried to secure the support of the local elites. Gradually the relationship of the central authority with the provincial administration was virtually reduced to getting tribute from the provincial governor. However, links with the centre were maintained and the Mughal tradition continued.

 Nizam Asif Jab was firstly appointed as a subadar (in charge of the province) by the Mughal emperor in 1713. But only after a military victory over his rival Mughal appointee in 1724 that he could take effective charge of the Deccan. After this period he stayed on in Deccan and went to the Mughal court only after leaving his appointee in charge. Taking advantage of the weakness at the center, he removed the Mughal officials in Hyderabad and installed his own men. Subsequently to stamp his authority he also assumed the right of making treaties, wars and granting mansabas and titles to his favorites. Now gradually the Mughal authority was reduced to a symbolic reading of Khutba etc. By the time of Nizam Ali Khan (1762-1803) Carnatic, Marathas and Mysore had all settled their territorial claims and a kind of autonomous stable political pattern emerged in Hyderabad.  

Mysore - The mid-18th century witnessed the emergence of Mysore as a significant power in South India. Haidar Ali laid the foundations of Mysore's power, which were consolidated by his able son, Tipu Sultan. Though Haidar Ali was only a junior officer, of common parentage, in the Mysore army, he gradually rose to be a brilliant commander. His most remarkable achievement was his realization that only a modern army could be the basis of a powerful state. Consequently, he inducted French experts to set up an arsenal and train the troops along western lines.

      Soon after Haider Ali was able to overthrow the real power behind the Mysore throne, the minister Nunjaraj in 1761. The boundaries of the Mysore state extended to include the rich coastal areas of Canara and Malabar. An expansionist at heart, Haidar naturally clashed with other powers in the region, the Marathas, Hyderabad and the new entrants in the game, the British. In 1769 he inflicted a heavy defeat on British forces very close to Madras. With his death in 1782, his son Tipu became Sultan and extended his father's policies further.

Q  Battle of Buxar                                                         6

A  The abuse of dastak (duty-free trade permit) by the company servants for their private trade was the immediate cause of the war of 1764. Mir Kasim was backed by the provincial nobility of Bihar, Orissa and the Nawab of Awadh and the Mughal emperor Shah Alam. The combined forces under Mir Kasim were defeated by the British and thus the independent rule of the Nawabs in Bengal came to an end. The deposition and execution of Mir Kasim was followed by the restoration of Mir Jafar, this time on much harsher terms. For all practical purposes, power was transferred to the British and which was formalized by the treaty of Allahabad, 12 August 1765. By the treaty, the Mughal emperor formally appointed the English East India Company his Diwan for the provinces of Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa. The company was entrusted with the financial administration of the three province's and in return, the emperor was guaranteed an annual tribute of Rs. 2,00,000. The Nawabs of Bengal retained the office of Nazim with formal responsibility for defense, law and order and the

Administration of justice. 

Q  Awadh under the British                                                  6

A  The company through the resident stationed at the Awadh capital encroached upon the powers of the rulers so much so that by the beginning of the 19th Century, many of the higher officials, courtiers and large landholders of the province repose their faith in the company and consider it as a real source of power. Even members of the Nawabi family relied on companies' intervention for securing the position of the Nawabi. The company on the other hand, used the resources of Awadh both the manpower and money in redrawing the political map of India. The Army recruited from Awadh and Bengal and supported by the money extracted for the people of the province helped the company in winning repeated victories over the Maratha and the Sikhs. It led the British to emerge as the Paramount power in India. It also helped the Company to keep Awadh in check by providing extraterritorial protection to the dissidents from the jurisdiction of the Awadh rulers thereby creating a constituency loyal to the Company.

EHI - 5

First Part 
Block - 1

Q  Discuss the salient features of the Maratha administration.                     20

A      The Maratha king was the sardeshmukh of the entire Deccan (Aurangabad, Berar, Bidar, Bijapur, Hyderabad, and Khandesh) and Karnataka. The Raja was largely dependent on his sardars for his finances. The basic contours of the Maratha State system was dominated by the Peshwas or chief ministers which further evolved during the time of Balaji Vishwanath. The powers of the office of the Peshwa rapidly increased during his tenure till it became the center of authority of the entire Maratha Empire. Originally the Peshwa was only a mukhya pradhan or prime minister and his post was not hereditary. But by the time of Baji Rao, Balaji Vishwanath's son, became Peshwa in 1720, the office became hereditary. 

Maratha dominion can be broadly divided into two parts non-regulation and regulation areas. In the non-regulated areas, zamindars, autonomous and semi-autonomous chiefs were left with the independent authority to control the areas under their command provided they continuously pay tribute to the king. The king's tribute demand from these areas was in proportion to their power of resistance, the weaker ones paying more than the stronger. In regulated areas, the direct administration was established. In these areas, the system of revenue assessment, management, and the collection was established.  

Such regulated areas were divided among vatandars . Each unit of about 10 to 200 villages was under a deshmukh-deshpande combination. Vatandars were co-sharers of the land produce. They had the right to collect dues from cultivators in lieu of their salaries, they also had the customary share in the government's revenue exempt land. The division of shares of a vatan did not imply partition of the land but of the proceeds. The right to sell any hereditary estate was recognized in principle. During periods of agrarian or financial or administrative crisis, the regulation could be relaxed and zamindars were allowed to acquire a temporary authority over the land under a system of revenue farming. Among the tenants, there were two types (a) resident cultivators with hereditary rights of occupancy (mirasdars) and (b) temporary cultivators (uparis). 

In most of the regulated territories, the administration continued with the standard assessment rates of the previous period in the 18th century. Under the Peshwas the tankha system was the permanent standard land revenue assessment method. This land revenue system was adopted for each village. In the late 1750s & 1760s, the kamal (or 'completion') settlement was followed. This settlement completed the tankha settlement by taking into consideration newly cultivated lands. The kamal system was based on measurement and classification of the qualities of land, and the king's share came to one-sixth of the produce. The internal distribution of the village assessment (tankha or kamal )was decided by the village headman or the village itself.

In addition to the regular land revenue, the government also imposed a number of extra taxes to be collected, which were intricately recorded by village and district officials. In the 1790s and 1810s when the Peshwa needed more revenue to pay for armies and obligations to the British and hence there was an expansion of revenue farming and an increase in the state's revenue demand. In Maharashtra, no more than a quarter of revenue was paid in cash. Most often, it was remitted from villages through the districts, to Poona through bills of exchange.

        There were also some tensions during this time period, between the centralizing forces of the state and the comparatively equalitarian local peasantry. Vatandar assemblies (qota) were often held to protect themselves from state demands. While such assemblies were frequently organized in the 17th century and showcase the popular resistance, however in the 18thcentury, the authority and powers of regional and village headmen were progressively bypassed through new administrative procedures.

The administrative systems in the northern saranjam states (Holkar, Sindia, Gwalior, and Bhonsle) were in principle copies of Peshwa. The only difference, however, was that they had Diwans and supervisory officials imposed on their administration from Poona. The bureaucracy in the Deccan and the north was dominated by different grades of Brahmins.   

Q   Did the Maratha administration revolve only around `Fitna'? Discuss.          12

A    After the Mughal retreat from the Deccan the Marathas expanded and evolved as a

loose association or confederacy of military leaders who were denoted as sardars.These Marathas, drew their strength from the ordinary peasant castes. Initially, the sardars held temporary assignments of land revenue. But in practice, they wanted to become hereditary rulers once they established themselves. Under these circumstances, the processes of fitnas became crucial and was central to social and political life in the Maratha state system. 

The system of fitna implies taking benefit of the existing political conflicts through a combination of coercion and conciliation, as opposed to pure military operations. Fitna then, is regarded as the political mechanism that was used for the expansion, consolidation & subsequent institutionalization of Maratha power. In ensures the crucial collaboration/acquiescence of the gentry required for the political arithmetic of fitna. The system of fitna was exploited for the conquest as well as gaining agricultural land.

       It was through fitna that the Marathas penetrated the expanding Mughal Empire in the late 17th century by aligning themselves with different Deccan Sultans against the Mughals. Therefore, Wink argues, rather than representing a revolt against the Mughal empire, Maratha sovereignty emerged as a result of the Mughal expansion. In form, the Maratha empire remained a zamindari based and the Marathas never really shed the status of zamindars. Maratha dominion can be broadly divided into what have been called non-regulation & regulation areas. In the non-regulated areas zamindars, autonomous and semi-autonomous chiefs were left with the independent authority to administer the areas under their command provided they continuously pay tribute to the king. The king's tribute demand from these areas was in proportion to their power of resistance, the weaker ones paying more than the stronger.

        The expansion of the Marathas had from an early date predominantly been the work of the Peshwas and their sardars. In the 1740s the Marathas conquered Malwa,

Gujarat, Bundelkhand and penetrated, as far as Attock in the north, Rajasthan, Doab, Awadh, Bihar, and Orissa. Andra Wink's study shows that all these conquests started as fitna (conquests on invitation).  

Q   Analyse the Maratha State system in the mid-18th century giving reference to administrative, economic and social structures.                                  20 

A   Administration -  The Maratha king was the sardeshmukh of the entire Deccan (Aurangabad, Berar, Bidar, Bijapur, Hyderabad, and Khandesh) and Karnataka. The Raja was largely dependent on his sardars for his finances. The basic contours of the Maratha State system were dominated by the Peshwas or chief ministers. Maratha dominion can be broadly divided into two parts non-regulation and regulation areas. In the former, zamindars, autonomous and semi-autonomous chiefs were left with internal administrative autonomy. The king's tribute demand from these areas was in proportion to their power of resistance, the weaker ones paying more than the stronger. In regulated areas or the area of direct administration, there was a system of revenue assessment, management & accountancy. 

Such regulated areas were divided among vatandars . Each unit of about 10 to 200 villages was under a deshmukh-deshpande combination. Vatandars were co-sharers of the land produce with rights like dues from cultivators as salary, customary share in the government's land-revenue exempt land. The division of shares of a vatan did not imply partition of the land but of the proceeds. 

         The administrative systems in the northern saranjam states (Holkar, Sindia, Gwalior, and Bhonsle) were in principle copies of Peshwa, except that they had Diwans and

supervisory officials imposed on their administration from Poona. The bureaucracy in the Deccan and the north was dominated by different grades of Brahmins.    

Economic - Manufacturing and cash crops for distant markets formed an important part of the economy in Maharashtra. By the 17th and 18th centuries, credit institutions were operating in town and countryside. They were engaged in financing and providing loans to the indebted nobility and peasants, as well as the general population in daily economic life. There was the import of copper and cowries in the 18th century western Deccan which indicates the vigorous, highly monetized local market centers. The local market transaction in western Deccan by villagers and the general population was carried out in money. Money was also paid for daily and monthly wages to agricultural labor, craft production, and household service. Large and small scale mints producing a variety of coins were found in small market towns, the residential houses of important lords as well as in major cities. There is a wide range of records indicating transactions in rural exchanges during the late 18th century. In Maharashtra, there is evidence of people taking loans in cash and kind who were engaged in landholding, peasantry, agricultural laborers, craftsmen, and soldiers. 

Society - Society was largely agrarian in Maharashtra. By the 18th century, the establishment of villages in the heartlands of the Maratha empire was complete. This implied the spread of population and agrarian settlement. However, the heartland around Poona was poorly irrigated and relatively sparsely populated because of the quality of land and lack of irrigation facilities. By the mid-18th century, given the state of its technology, this area has reached its limits of development. This lead to the persistent outward pressure in Maratha to settle down In stable agriculture areas like Tanjore in the south, Gujarat and the Ganges valley in the north. The collection of taxes and other obligations stimulated the need for increased agriculture production.

The Maratha rulers adopted two kinds of measures here. The first measure was the concessional assessment, remission of revenues and granting loans. These measures helped to bring new land under cultivation. The second measure was to encourage the initiative of the people to build agricultural facilities. For example, inam land or gift land was given to the headman of a village during Shivaji's period to repair or build new dams. State promotion of agriculture, revenue system, etc. had led to a considerable economic differentiation among the peasantry. By the late 18th century there was large scale exploitation of peasantry which further increased due to an increase in population, taxation, and prices of food grains. There is abundant evidence of a strengthening hold on the peasantry by non-cultivating privileged class (state ministers, deshmukhs, military officers with saranjam, financiers and traders), many of whom combined more than one function. In Maratha society, there were three ways of control over rural resources - tax, the gift of land and hereditary offices.

Q   How was a Sikh State established in Punjab at the beginning of the 19th century? 12

Q   Discuss the emergence of the Sikh State in the late 18th century.               12

A.   Zakariya Khan who was the governor of Lahore (1726-1745) had tried to strengthen his control over the province but failed in the process of establishing an independent political system. The dominant factors in the Punjab polity during this period which stopped him were:

# the struggle of the Sikhs to establish an independent political authority.

# the foreign invasions, first the Persian and then the Afghan.

# the Maratha incursion, and

# the rivalry within the provincial administration. 

          It was the Sikhs who took full advantage of the prevailing political instability in the region and ultimately established an autonomous state in Punjab. The process that started in the 18th century, for the establishment of the Sikh state, was finally culminated after the establishment of an autonomous state of Punjab by Ranjit Singh in the first half of the 19th century. The internal fighting of the Sikh autonomous chiefs and the Afghan invasions under Zaman Shah in 1795,1796 and 1798 helped Ranjit Singh in consolidating his power in Punjab. Firstly, Ranjit Singh was able to curb the power of the independent Sikh principalities(12) and brought them under a single political authority. 

        After establishing his complete control over the affairs at home, Ranjit Singh launched his expeditions against the various chiefs of the Sikh confederacies. Firstly the

Ramgarhias were defeated and their main city Miani was seized. After reducing the powerful Ramgarhias to abject submission, Ranjit Singh turned his attention towards Lahore. Taking advantage of the turmoil, he in alliance with Sahib Singh of Gujarat and Milkha Singh of Pindiwala, attacked Shahanchi Khan and occupied Lahore in 1799. After Lahore Ranjit Singh annexed Amritsar from the Bhangis along with all their other territories. Master of Lahore and Amritsar, Ranjit Singh, laid the foundation of a sovereign Sikh monarchy in Punjab, with himself as to its undisputed monarch. 

       With a view to consolidate his position further Ranjit Singh continued his march towards other principalities. He subdued Jammu, seized Mirowal, Narowal, Sialkot,

Dilawargarh and Wazirabad. Thereafter, he humbled the Kangra chief Sansar Chand and the Pathan chief Nizam-ud-din of Kasur. The Muslim principalities of Kabul monarchy, like Jhang and Sahiwal submitted readily and the Multan governor Muzaffar Khan greeted Ranjit Singh with huge presents.

       Kashmir was conquered in 1819 and by 1820-Ranjit Singh was acknowledged as the ruler of the whole of Punjab, from the Sutlej to the Indus, with the territories of Kashmir and the hill tract to the borders of Tibet. The Trans-Indus regions of Dera Ismail, Dera Ghazi Khan, Khairabad and finally Peshawar (1834) were all subjected to the Sikh monarchy. 

Q  How did Bengal & Awadh emerge as autonomous states in the mid 18th century?  20 

A   Bengal towards autonomy - The basis for an autonomous state in Bengal was first laid down by Murshid Kuli Khan who was firstly appointed as Diwan to reorganize the revenue administration of Bengal. His success as an efficient administrator & the state of uncertainty in imperial administration following the death of Aurangzeb helped him to become the Subadar of Bengal. Although Murshid Kuli did not defy the imperial authority of the Mughals yet it was his administration which showed a clear indication of the establishment of a dynastic rule in Bengal. He was the last governor of Bengal directly appointed by the emperor. Murshid Kuli abolished the system of separate offices of the Nazim and the Diwan and combined both the offices. By combining these two posts wanted to strengthen the power of the governor. This was done without taking permission and was a clear indication of the creation of an independent authority in the province. Murshid Kuli set the tradition of a dynastic rule in Bengal. It became an established fact in the province that after his death the Nawabship of Bengal would pass into the hands of his family. They continued to seek imperial confirmation but the selection of Nawab no longer remained in the hands of the emperor. 

       Initially, Murshid Kuli's main concern was to step up revenue collection in Bengal. In order to do this Murshid Kuli entered into a series of new relations with local power groups within the province. This actually laid the basis for a larger framework within which the autonomous Suba would function in the 1730's and 1740's. The measures that he took were:

# Elimination of small intermediary Zamindars,

# Expelling rebellious Zamindars and Jagirdars into the frontier provinces of Orissa,

# Enlarging the scope and extent of the KHALISA lands,

# Encouraging big Zamindars who assumed the responsibilities of revenue collection and payment.

The new power structure that had thus emerged in Bengal was very different from the Mughal provincial model & coincided with Delhi's declining hold over the province. Sarfaraz, nominated by Murshid Kuli as his successor, was deposed by his father Shujauddin Khan. Alivardi Khan killed Sarfaraz Khan, the legitimate successor to Shujauddin, and seized power. Alivardi's regime added a new dimension to the relations between the Mughal authority and the Bengal government. 

      His reign showed a virtual break with the Mughals and marked the commencement of the process of autonomy for the Bengal Suba. The major appointments in the provincial administration were made by Alivardi himself without any reference to the Mughal emperor. Men of Alivardis own choice were appointed as Deputy Nawabs at Patna, Cuttack, and Dhaka. By the 1740's an administrative system developed in Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa steadily reduced ties with the imperial court in Delhi. Even though Alivardi Khan did not formally defy the imperial authority, but for all practical purposes there emerged an independent state in eastern India during this period. Two important ways of showing imperial control over province-payment of an annual tribute to the emperor and appointment of higher provincial officials by the emperor were not visible during Alivardi's regime.

Awadh towards autonomy - After being prevented time and again from playing a larger role in the Mughal imperial politics Sadat Khan concentrated his energies in consolidating his authority in Awadh. Saadat Khan devoted his energies to make Awadh an independent center of authority. Prevailing weaknesses in the imperial administration following the death of Aurangzeb helped him in fulfilling his ambition. Immediately after taking control of Awadh Saadat Khan faced strong resistance from numerous rebellious chiefs and rajas in Awadh. In order to consolidate his position the measures he took were:

# Suppression of rebellious Imal Zamindars.and chieftains,

# Curtailing the authority of the Madad-i-mash grantees,

# Systematising revenue collection, and also

# Negotiation with some local Zamindars. 

 Saadat Khan left a legacy of the semi-autonomous regional political system to his successor

Safdar Jang. Under Safdar Jung, the internal organization and working of the administration was no longer dependent on imperial dictates. Moreover, he did not consider it obligatory to send regular tributes to Delhi. Between 1739 and 1764 Awadh attained higher autonomy. The outward allegiance to the Emperor was still maintained, for example,

# Emperor's formal confirmation was taken for the appointment in the high offices,

# Revenues were sent to the imperial treasury,

# Orders, Titles, etc. were given in the name of the Mughal Emperor, etc.

However, Safdar Jang tried his best to strengthen the basis of autonomous political system in Awadh. Safdar Jang's successor Shuja-ud-daula achieved greater success in consolidating the expanding frontiers of the province and in adjusting the relations of his independent Suba with the Mughal empire. Like his predecessors, Shuja-ud-daula also did not completely cut off the ties with the Mughal emperor. He also took the confirmation from the emperor for this throne. However, he successfully outmaneuvered the emperor's attempt to extend the imperial control over north India. Shuja-ud-daula was able to re-establish the dominance of Awadh over the imperial court and got the appointment of Wazir. Thus he successfully maintained the autonomous political system that developed in Awadh in the first half of the 18th century.

FST -1

21st Part 

Q.  How the application of scientific knowledge has made agriculture possible in arid zones, drylands, and hills?

A.  The advancements in our scientific knowledge have now enabled us to practice agriculture in arid zones, drylands, and hills.

 Arid Zones  - The chief arid areas of our country are confined to Rajasthan, Gujarat, Haryana, Karnataka, and Ladakh. They cover an area of about 400,000 square kilometers. Of this, Ladakh has a cold desert spread over 70,000 square kilometers.

           Here, aridity and low temperature limit the agricultural season to about five months in a year. Therefore, crops that require a short period to mature and can withstand severe cold are grown. These are some cereals, oil seeds and fodder crops. In the hot desert regions, of Rajasthan, Gujarat, and Haryana, there is an abundance of sunshine which causes high rate of evaporation. Many of these areas have adequate reserves of ground-water which is scientifically tapped for irrigation. In the arid zone fruit trees like ber and pomegranate and fuel-wood yielding trees like Acacia (Kikar), Prosopis (Mosquite) and Eucalyptus (Safeda) are grown. In such areas, large scale planting of shelter-belts minimizes soil erosion caused by wind. It also helps in the establishment of pastures and grazing lands. Later on, this land is used for growing pearlmillet and mungbean.

Dry Lands - Drylands constitute about 74% of our cultivated lands and produce about 42% of our food. These are entirely rain-dependent and crop fortunes are closely linked to the vagaries of the monsoon. Sometimes rains may set in very early or very late or may come on time but withdraw too soon. There may also be large breaks between showers. When evaporation and loss of water by seeping in the soil exceeds rainfall, these lands are plagued by drought, scarcity of drinking water and thus crop failure. Rain water is collected in ponds to support agriculture. In Dry lands with red soil, deep ploughing helps in conserving water while In black soils, sowing two crops at a time is possible with surface drainage and good water management. Leaves and crop residues, when mixed with soil improve its texture, and water holding capacity. Crops like pigeonpea and castor that have deep roots, are cultivated in these regions which improves the physical condition of the soil further, as the roots of these crops add organic matter. Varieties of sorghum, millets, sunflower, safflower, mustard, groundnut, various pulses and cotton are available which grow within a shorter time withstanding scarcity of water and also diversifying crops in dry lands. A variety of crops and cropping patterns allow the farmer to make a proper choice of what to grow in different climates and soil types.

Hills - Based on a study of the slope and depth of the soil, and availability of water, scientists have devised an interesting agricultural system that requires low inputs and puts the land to most productive use without disturbing the ecosystem. Under this system, the upper reaches of the hills are devoted to forestry. The next zone is developed for growing fruit trees, perennial fodder grass and legumes. The roots of legumes fix nitrogen and improve the soil. In the third zone, a mix of crops are raised on terraces constructed with low-cost implements. Earthen dams are constructed with locally available material. These collect enough water to be utilized for irrigation.

Q.  Make a table showing the protein and energy contents of 10 common food. 

A.   Energy and Protein Contents of Some Common Foods

Foodstuffs                 Energy (Cal/100g)                       Proteins (g)

Cereals                              340                                         10-13

Pulses and Legumes         345                                         20-25

Soyabean                          430                                           43

Milk-Buffalo                    120                                           4.3

Cow                                  70                                            3.2

Paneer                              264                                          18.3

Egg                                  170                                           13.3

Potatoes                            95                                            1.6

Meat                                200                                           18.5

Fish                                 100                                           14.9

Q.  Deliberate upon the recent technological developments in the energy sector giving appropriate examples.

A.  The energy sources available in India are fossil fuels (like lignite, coal, and petroleum) the sun, wind, geothermal energy (for example, hot springs) water (hydro-electric power). The demand for energy doubles every 14 years and is taken as one of the indicators of development of a country. Many technological developments are shaping the energy sector in a new way by using technology to harness the energy of resources available which was not earlier possible. Some of these sources of energy are- 

Solar Energy - With the help of photocells, solar energy is harnessed. Solar energy is used directly to give us hot water during winter or run a refrigerator. It is also used for heating rooms in colder regions. Photocells are used to produce electricity for driving vehicles and illumination of streets. In a desert like Rajasthan, the earth's surface receives solar energy at the rate of 200 watts per square meter per hour. Since this feature of using solar energy is that it can be generated where needed. Solar cookers are being used in many homes to cook food now. 

Wind Energy - Like solar energy, wind flow can also be harnessed to obtain mechanical energy for fetching water from the wells or from rivers. Once the windmill is turning due to the force of the wind, it may as well run a generator to get electrical energy. In the coastal and hilly regions, where the wind blows at high speed, a windmill can be used for the supply of electricity to a small town.

Wave and tidal energy -  Waves and tides are other sources of energy which is perpetual and can be converted into electric energy, particularly where seawater can move into a narrow cut, such as is provided naturally where rivers flow into the sea. The energy carried is used in India's hilly regions when a wheel with pedals can be made to turn when it is put in a fast-flowing stream. Flour mills of small size built on this principle were used in Kashmir. Here a natural or artificial water fall is made to turn turbine blades which when rotates generates electricity. Large hydroelectric power stations work on the same principle for generating electricity.

Geothermal Energy -

Hot water and super heated steam of hot springs are a natural phenomenon and is used to generate electricity. In our country, there arc 46 hydrothermal areas where the temperature of the spring water exceeds 150°C. These hot springs can be used to generate electricity for heating homes, or glass-houses to prow vegetables.

Atomic energy -

In view of the fast depletion of our non-renewable resources like coal and petroleum, and because of pollution which power stations burning coal causes efforts are underway to construct Atomic reactors to produce electricity. With the energy of the atom controlled in nuclear fission reaction, the energy and heat produced during the bombardment of atoms of U235 is channelized for electricity generation. The device used for this purpose is called an atomic reactor. Nuclear reactors produce heat, which is commonly used to raise steam, which rotates turbines and thus generates electric power. It is estimated that 1 kg of natural uranium generates energy equal to that produced by 35,000 kg of coal. Thus the production of energy from nuclear fuel like uranium is efficient, and since great loads of coal or diesel are not consumed daily this energy is convenient. 

Biogas -

Cattle dung for the production of biogas which is used for cooking. Water weeds like water hyacinth, water lettuce, Salvinia, hydrilla, duckweeds, and algae are found to be a useful supplement to cattle dung. Biogas can be used not only as cooking gas, it can also be used to raise steam, which can be used for running engines or machines in the factories or for running turbines to generate electricity. It has been found that large biogas plants can supply the needs of a number of families or even small villages. What is left over after generating the gas, can be used as manure. Hence this is also an economical way of getting more energy. Great efforts are being made to install tens of thousands of biogas plants in rural areas as it is one of the efficient ways of generating electricity.

Q.  ‘Science and technology do not exist independent of the society, its culture and value system. They are part of the socio-economic and political framework of a given society’. Analyze this statement by giving suitable examples. 

A.   As science and technology provide all the necessities as well as many of the ideas that hold our society together, society itself provides the environment and the atmosphere for science and technology to either grow fast or stagnate or even decay. Science and technology do not exist independent of the society, its culture and the value system. They are a part of the socio-economic and political framework of a given society. Motivation for the practical application of science and, hence, its growth and use comes from the economic needs of the society. The economic planning and policy of a society determine its social programmes and the purposes and goals of society's production activity, which in turn provides the incentive for scientific growth. However, answers to questions like what kind of economic policy will be pursued, whether the social programmes will be implemented, and to what extent, depends on the political and social organization of a society. Thus, science and technology can be more directly influenced by the general policies and social structure of a society. For example, when economic growth is purely determined by market demands, artificial demands for goods are created by advertising, even though there is no pressing need for them.
            Ideas of people are sought to be moulded by propaganda carried on by radio or television or even by education. The competition to produce more goods, increase profits or the desire to provide fancy goods to an influential section of population results in one kind of development of science and technology. On the other hand, if society desires and plans to improve rural life or give priority to public health or provide a certain level of nutrition to all citizens, the tasks and consequent development of science and technology should follow a different path. Still another example is the question of spending money on weapon of offense or defense that naturally affects science and technology.
             It is known that the world today is annually spending Rs. 15 lakh crores on weapons and their development. This not only takes away money needed to feed, clothe or provide health and shelter to people, but it also prevents the development of science and technology for constructive purposes. We can conclude that science and technology are part and parcel of a larger social system, whose other components are industry, agriculture, trade, distribution of goods, communication, education, government, and administration, etc. 
            Science and technology cannot be advanced by viewing them in isolation. The whole social, economic and political system will have to work in unison so that all round advancement can take place. In the end, we can say that science influences the entire social edifice, the material as well as ideological, and in turn science itself is influenced by society and its objectives. Before any project is taken up, its positive, as well as negative aspects, the effect it will have on human beings and the environment, must be properly evaluated. "Social good" must have primacy in the overall planning and the use to which science and technology is put.

FST -1

20th Part

Q.  Deliberate upon the recent technological developments in the energy sector giving appropriate examples.

A.  The energy sources available in India are fossil fuels (like lignite, coal, and petroleum) the sun, wind, geothermal energy (for example, hot springs) water (hydro-electric power). The demand for energy doubles every 14 years and is taken as one of the indicators of development of a country. Many technological developments are shaping the energy sector in a new way by using technology to harness the energy of resources available which was not earlier possible. Some of these sources of energy are- 

Solar Energy - With the help of photocells, solar energy is harnessed. Solar energy is used directly to give us hot water during winter or run a refrigerator. It is also used for heating rooms in colder regions. Photocells are used to produce electricity for driving vehicles and illumination of streets. In a desert-like Rajasthan, the earth's surface receives solar energy at the rate of 200 watts per square meter per hour. Since this feature of using solar energy is that it can be generated where needed. Solar cookers are being used in many homes to cook food now. 

Wind Energy - Like solar energy, wind flow can also be harnessed to obtain mechanical energy for fetching water from the wells or from rivers. Once the windmill is turning due to the force of the wind, it may as well run a generator to get electrical energy. In the coastal and hilly regions, where the wind blows at high speed, a windmill can be used for the supply of electricity to a small town.

Wave and tidal energy -  Waves and tides are another sources of energy which is perpetual and can be converted into electric energy, particularly where sea water can move into a narrow cut, such as is provided naturally where rivers flow into the sea. The energy carried is used in India's hilly regions when a wheel with pedals can be made to turn when it is put in a fast-flowing stream. Flour mills of small size built on this principle were used in Kashmir. Here a natural or artificial water fall is made to turn turbine blades which when rotates generates electricity. Large hydroelectric power stations work on the same principle for generating electricity.

Geothermal Energy -

Hot water and superheated steam of hot springs are a natural phenomenon and is used to generate electricity. In our country, there arc 46 hydrothermal areas where the temperature of the spring water exceeds 150°C. These hot springs can be used to generate electricity for heating homes, or glass-houses to prow vegetables.

Atomic energy -

In view of the fast depletion of our non-renewable resources like coal and petroleum, and because of pollution which power stations burning coal causes efforts are underway to construct Atomic reactors to produce electricity. With the energy of the atom controlled in nuclear fission reaction, the energy and heat produced during the bombardment of atoms of U235 is channelized for electricity generation. The device used for this purpose is called an atomic reactor. Nuclear reactors produce heat, which is commonly used to raise steam, which rotates turbines and thus generates electric power. It is estimated that 1 kg of natural uranium generates energy equal to that produced by 35,000 kg of coal. Thus the production of energy from nuclear fuel like uranium is efficient, and since great loads of coal or diesel are not consumed daily this energy is convenient. 

Biogas -

Cattle dung for the production of biogas which is used for cooking. Water weeds like water hyacinth, water lettuce, Salvinia, hydrilla, duck weeds, and algae are found to be a useful supplement to cattle dung. Biogas can be used not only as cooking gas, but it can also be used to raise steam, which can be used for running engines or machines in the factories or for running turbines to generate electricity. It has been found that large biogas plants can supply the needs of a number of families or even small villages. What is left over after generating the gas, can be used as manure. Hence this is also an economical way of getting more energy. Great efforts are being made to install tens of thousands of biogas plants in rural areas as it is one of the efficient ways of generating electricity.

Q.  ‘Science and technology do not exist independent of the society, its culture and value system. They are part of the socio-economic and political framework of a given society’. Analyze this statement by giving suitable examples. 

A.   As science and technology provide all the necessities as well as many of the ideas that hold our society together, society itself provides the environment and the atmosphere for science and technology to either grow fast or stagnate or even decay. Science and technology do not exist independent of the society, its culture and the value system. They are a part of the socio-economic and political framework of a given society. The motivation for the practical application of science and, hence, its growth and use comes from the economic needs of society. The economic planning and policy of a society determine its social programmes and the purposes and goals of society's production activity, which in turn provides the incentive for scientific growth. However, answers to questions like what kind of economic policy will be pursued, whether the social programmes will be implemented, and to what extent, depends on the political and social organization of a society. Thus, science and technology can be more directly influenced by the general policies and social structure of a society. For example, when economic growth is purely determined by market demands, artificial demands for goods are created by advertising, even though there is no pressing need for them. Ideas of people are sought to be molded by propaganda carried on by radio or television or even by education. The competition to produce more goods, increase profits or the desire to provide fancy goods to an influential section of population results in one kind of development of science and technology. On the other hand, if society desires and plans to improve rural life or give priority to public health or provide a certain level of nutrition to all citizens, the tasks and consequent development of science and technology should follow a different path. Still another example is the question of spending money on a weapon of offense or defense that naturally affects science and technology. It is known that the world today is annually spending Rs. 15 lakh crores on weapons and their development. This not only takes away money needed to feed, clothe or provide health and shelter to people, but it also prevents the development of science and technology for constructive purposes. We can conclude that science and technology are part and parcel of a larger social system, whose other components are industry, agriculture, trade, distribution of goods, communication, education, government and administration etc. Science and technology cannot be advanced by viewing them in isolation. The whole social, economic and political system will have to work in unison so that all-round advancement can take place. In the end, we can say that science influences the entire social edifice, the material as well as ideological, and in turn science itself is influenced by society and its objectives.

            Before any project is taken up, its positive, as well as negative aspects, the effect it will have on human beings and the environment, must be properly evaluated. "Social good" must have primacy in the overall planning and the use to which science and

technology is put.

Q.  (a) Describe the various ways by which the human body battles against germs.

(b) How does vaccination protect us from disease?       

A.  First of all the skin and the mucous membranes of our body help us to keep germs out of our body. There are glands in the skin which produces oily substances to provide a protective cover to the surface of the skin. Perspiration helps us to eliminate certain waste and germs out of the skin. Perspiration also contains a special chemical known as lysozyme which destroys the germs. lysozyme is also found in tears, saliva, nasal secretion and tissue fluids. Many types of germs which happens to reach our stomach are destroyed by strongly acidic stomach juices. 

         Apart from this, our body has a potent defence system called the immune system and it is spread throughout the body. The immune system is in the form of special cells called white blood cells which circulate throughout the body along with blood. The white blood cell are of different types and fight the invader germs in variety of ways. During any kind of infection, there is an automatic increase in WBC,  and they are produced in large numbers. 

       When germs attack over the body, special types of WBC migrate to the infected site and destroy the invader germs by engulfing them. These cells are called engulfing cells. Another kind of WBC produces a chemical weapon called antibodies that attack toxic substances to make them ineffective. These antibodies also tag the invading germs so that they can be easily recognized by engulfing cells. Yet another type of WBC work as killer cells and directly destroy the invader or the infected body cell. Thus the whole body goes into action mode as soon as disease germs enter the body .

            Vaccination is a process of inducing artificial immunization. Through vaccination, antibodies are artificially inserted into the weak body, where the body is fighting invading germs and the immune system has weakened. Thus through vaccination antibodies are entered into the body that to strengthen the defense mechanism and produce WBC to combat that particular infection. In this way, vaccination helps in strengthening the immune system and fighting the invading germs or the infection. 

Q.  Name one disease each spread by air, water, food, and contact.  
A.  Air - Common cold, Leprosy, Measles

      Water - Cholera , Typhoid, Diarrhoea, Dysentry

      Food - Typhoid, Bacillary dysentery

      Contact - Syphilis, Gonorrhea 

Q.  What are infectious diseases? Name any two diseases caused by bacteria and give their symptoms and preventions also.    

A. Infectious diseases are those diseases that are caused by germs or microbes and which move from one person to another. Microbes are minute organisms that cannot be seen with the naked eye. Some of them can be seen with the help of an ordinary microscope while others are so small that they can be seen under very special microscopes. Some of the infectious diseases are also caused by worms.

Typhoid is spread through bacteria which is present on contaminated food or is served by a person who hasn't washed his hands after defecation or urination etc

1.  Typhoid: An infection caused by bacteria. It is caused mostly due to contaminated water and outside food. 

Symptoms:  Fever, weakness, vomiting, etc.

Prevention: By properly washing hands before and after eating, drinking clean water, avoid eating spoil food exposed to flies or contaminated food served by an infected person or cooked in unhygienic place.

2.  Dysentery: An intestinal infection affecting both children and adults. It is caused by bacteria. 

Symptoms: Severe pain in the abdomen, loose motions, weakness, and fever.

Prevention: By properly washing hands before and after eating, drinking clean water, avoid eating spoil food exposed to flies or contaminated food served by an infected person or cooked in unhygienic place.By maintaining personal hygiene.

3. Leprosy: It is an infection caused by bacteria. It is spread from person to person by touch in most cases.

Symptoms: Inflammation, itching Scars, loss of appendages of hands, etc.

Prevention: Since it is infectious, maintain a distance from infected person & personal hygiene. 

Q.  List various modes of spread of diseases. Discuss any two of these modes along with methods of prevention.    

A.  The different modes of spread of diseases are air water food contact insects and other carriers.

Air 

A number of diseases are caused due to bacteria and viruses that are carried in the air. When an infected person sneezes or coughs, there is a noticeable spray of drops. These tiny droplets of liquid contain germs that can remain afloat in the air for a very long time. If another person is standing by he is likely to breathe in quite a lot of these germs and thus get infected. One sick person, therefore, can infect a lot of others. Common cold, leprosy spread through this manner. These diseases spread easily in damp closed spaces. 

Prevention

Air can be disinfected by mechanical means, ultraviolet radiation, chemical vapour or special filters for air coming into rooms. In offices or residential places, ventilation helps to replace polluted air. The quality of incoming air with regard to temperature, humidity, and purity is also an integral part of the ventilation which ultimately provides an environment for comfort and is free from the risk of infection. Green plants also purify air. Green Belt area should be increased to enhance the self-cleaning power of the environment. Green plants around the residential complexes, offices should be increased as they improve the quality of air by purifying it. 

Water

Diseases like Cholera, typhoid, dysentery spread through water. Germs of these diseases multiply in the gut of the infected person and come out in the faeces. Eggs of worms also come out in the faeces.  If the infected faeces and Urine are passed in an open field, germs or eggs are carried to the source of local water supply such as pounds or rivers. Bathing or washing of utensils in such water or drinking it, can infect other people. Sometimes in slum areas, the toilets are too close to hand pumps and thus drinking water becomes a source of disease. People living in such areas are the ones who suffer most from the water borne diseases. The other reason for the spread of the diseases is negligence in personal hygiene by infected person. If the infected person do not wash their hands carefully after defecation or urination, the hands are likely to carry germs which will be transferred to other objects like food utensils or furniture. When these objects are touched by a healthy person the germs find their way to him.

Precaution

Drinking water must be free of disease-causing agents or harmful chemicals. Proper disposal of human excreta is an essential requirement of Community Health. At home drinking water can be made safe by filtration and boiling. Filtration removes most of the suspended impurities, while disease-causing microbes are killed by boiling. Also, handpumps should be deep enough so that they can draw naturally filtered water.

Q.  Explain the term artificial intelligence. 

A. Normal computers can perform complicated calculations and solve logical problems only solve logical problems only because they are given a detailed program for action for action. Artificial intelligence means computers which can firstly learn the rules of any specific Signal Processing, and then apply them to solve the related problem on their own. These computers having artificial intelligence can do specific jobs like interpreting data, taking  photographs of the earth taken from spacecraft to determine the position of airfields missile launching sites or  Ships moving on the high seas. Artificial intelligence is the ability of a computer system to produce an output that seems to come from an intelligent human being.

Q.  Methodology of reward and punishment helps in learning process. Discuss. 

A.      Reward and punishment is a form of learning. For example, if one has a pet puppy and he wants to train it to sit down. the puppy would not understand the words sit down as the puppy doesn't understand the language, but if while giving the command you physically make him sit and give him a biscuit then on the experience being repeated few times the puppy will learn to obey the command. Thus the puppy will associate the sound of the command to sit, with the reward of a biscuit. After training, the puppy will sit down as soon as he is given the command sit, even if he is not given any reward. In some situations, the punishment would also lead to the same result.

We learn a lot of things through the reward and punishment method for example when a baby is hungry he cries, which attracts the attention of the mother and the baby is given milk. The child will soon learn the trick. Similarly, in school when a student in the maths class solve a problem correctly, He receives praise by the teacher. Next time he will approach other maths problems with greater zeal so as to get the teachers approval and praise.  The principle of reward and punishment is used in the educational field extensively because teachers in school are constantly encouraging or rewarding good performance or good actions and discouraging or punishing poor performance of activities. The same principle is used in the society in public organizations, bonus for productivity in a factory or cut in wages if there is low production are examples of reward and punishment. A similar method is employed by the traffic police as it imposed fine on motorists if they cross a red line, or by parents who do not allow the children to watch television if the homework is not done are other such examples.

Q.  Use examples to explain the roles of memory, reasoning, analysis, and synthesis in the learning process. 

Q.  Cognitive learning

A. Four things play the main role in learning, these are the memory, reasoning, analysis, and synthesis.

Memory - memory is very important because it is the process by which we hold information in our mind, but mear memory is not enough. One may memorize whole books and yet couldn't understand anything. The information carried by memory has to be subjected to reasoning to understand fully.

Reasoning - reasoning allows us to see the connection between different bits of information or different ideas and concepts. For example, the rising of the sun and daylight, for the gathering of clouds and rain that might follow the cause and effect relationship also explained in terms of reasoning. When we apply reasoning we can make more sense of the information given to us and reach some conclusions. For example, the various facts about murder, on the basis of reasoning and analysis, may indicate exactly how it could have taken place, or who did it. 

Analysis - analysis is thus considered to be a higher mental activity than memory or reasoning.  However ultimately information from many areas of analysis is to be combined to make a whole picture. The process is first to take things apart: reason and analyze and then to put them together, or synthesize, in order to fully understand something. 

‌Synthesis -  synthesis can be called a higher level of mental activity then even analysis. This doesn't mean that all this process takes place separately or even one after another. In the mind, reasoning, analysis and synthesis go on forward and backward until some conclusion or understanding emerges. This kind of learning which is fairly complicated and involved thought process is called cognitive learning.  Every student experiences it, and all of us acquire knowledge about all our lives in this cognitive learning manner.