EHI - 01(4th Part)

Fourth Part

Q.  Write in about five lines how colonialism accentuated social differentiation in Indian

society.

A. i)  As for agriculture, the land settlements (Permanent, Raiyatwari and Mahalwari) created certain new elements like a market economy and did away with some customary rights like forest & pasturage rights. The agrarian policies coupled with other developments encouraged money lending particularly in the context of cash payments of land revenue. In the context of sharpening social differentiation, money lending got associated with a complete control of the rural economy and society by a few moneylenders. And, if it was a tribal tract, this interaction also implied the process of peasantisation i.e. conversion of tribals into peasants.

ii)  Secondly, social differentiation was not a new feature but colonialism accentuated the differences and created a sharper polarization between those who owned lands; had acquired wealth, and through their new ownership rights, had access to the courts to defend themselves and their property, and those whose customary rights got undermined. This differentiation had certain implications. Besides strengthening and polarizing, these differences centered around class (rich-poor), differences around caste and religion also got strained for example if in a particular area the landowner belonged to a particular caste or religion and the peasants were of another caste or religion then the caste/religious

differences got strained on account of class differentiation we have noted above. Tribal areas saw the emergence of 'outsiders' who were moneylenders and landlords, and who ruthlessly exploited the population.

iii)  Another major aspect of colonial policy was to forcibly commercialize agriculture, with the obvious idea of providing raw material for British industries. This proved hazardous for the peasants who were forced to grow commercial crops (like indigo and cotton) instead of food grains, even in years of scarcity.

iv)  As for the artisans, colonialism spelt doom for them. The colonization of India implied that India was to be a market for British goods. These were factory-made goods cheaper and finer than the products of the India artisans. This led to the wiping out of the traditional Indian industries like cotton and salt. Besides throwing a large section of the artisans out of employment, it increased the pressure on land as the artisans tried to turn to agriculture.

Q.  Leaders and Movements

A.  Chakra Bisoi --------- Khonds of Ghumsar in Orissa in 1854-56

 Sido & Kanhu ---------- Santhal Rebellion in Bengal in 1855-57

 Radhakrishna Dandasena ------------ Savara Rebellion in Parliakhemedi in 1856-57

Q.  What led to Santhal Rebellion.

A.   The colonial policies of exploitation led to the precipitation of grievances against the system , but initially the rebellion started against some merchants and moneylenders from Northern and Eastern India, who had complete control over the existence of Santhals through interests on loans, with rates ranging from 50% to 500% .They grabbed lands of the Santhals. Some of the intermediaries of the Zamindars were ruthlessly exploitative. Recruitments of forced labor and the sexual exploitation of tribal women at the railway sites were also some reasons. When the movement started it was not ostensibly anti-British, but was directed chiefly against the mahajans and traders. The Santhals declared that their new God had directed them to collect and pay their revenue to the state at the rate of two annas on every buffalo plough and half anna on each cow-plough. They also fixed interest rates on loans which were to be on the lower side. The Santhals were punished for night 'attacks' on

mahajans, whereas their oppressors were not even touched . Rebellion increased in 1854, with an increase in the number of 'dacoities', 'burglaries', 'thefts' of mhajans, whose wealth was ill-earned. Two Santhals--Sido and Kanhu were the leaders of this movement . From an essentially anti-mahajan and anti-trader movement it incorporated a new element - the Santhals made no secret of their opposition to the police, white planters, railway engineers and the officials, thereby revealing their opposition to the colonial order as well.

      The movement lasted for six months. Many villages were 'attacked' hy the Santhals after being given prior notice. A lot of pressure was exerted on the zamindars and the Government by the rebels. In many areas the zamindars helped in the suppression of the rebellion.

Q.  Rebels and Movement

A.  Tomma Dora ----------- Koya Rebellion

      Sambhunath Pal --------- Pabna Uprising

      Birsa Munda ------------- Munda Revolt

Q.  Discuss in about ten lines the basic characteristics of the popular movements during this period.

A. 1)  These movements were inspired from the past privileged life of their before the colonization . The existing system was exploitive in nature. Attacking the established order of the sahukar, zamindar and the British colonial administration was thus at the center of rebellion. On occasions they were led by the traditionally affluent sections whose privileges had been undermined as a result of the colonization of India.

2)  The belief of new era of fair and just system ,where everybody would be equal and live happily.

3)  Another noticeable feature was the association of these popular movements with religion and caste.

4)  Another importilnt facet of these popular movements was their close association with 'lootings' and 'crime' directed against the affluent classes.

5)  The sense of solidarity exhibited by peasants, tribals and artisans is another characteristic feature. Territorial boundaries & ethnic bonds transcended in the popular movements.

6)  And, finally, these popular movements served to considerably narrow the gap between a section of the Indian Intelligentsia and the popular masses.

Tribal Revolts Before 1857

Chakra Bisoi --------- Khonds of Ghumsar in Orissa in 1854-56

Sido & Kanhu ---------- Santhal Rebellion in Bengal in 1855-57

Radhakrishna Dandasena ------------ Savara Rebellion in Parliakhemedi (Orissa) in 1856-57

Tribal Revolts After 1857

1)  Indigo Riots- It started in Bengal in 1859. Indigo plantation was started in 1770 by East India Company and farmers were lured by loans and forcefully trapped , they resisted creating a lot of discontent since the peasants could not grow food grains which they needed for survival. By 1859 thousands of peasants had withdrawn their labor, formed organizations all over the indigo plantation districts and resisted the repression of the planters and their armed retainers. The contemporary newspapers like THE BENGALEE gave due coverage to the movement and reported how it was marked with success. Dinabandhu Mitra wrote Nildarpan in Bengali which highlighted the plight of the peasants. The indigo riots forced the Government to set up an official enquiry (1860). The movement also knocked down the plantation system in lower Bengal, forcing the planters to shift to Bihar .

2) Moplah Uprising - In the 1850-1900 period series of Moplah Uprisings occurred in Malabar. As the Jenmi landlords backed by the police, law courts and revenue officials tightened their grip over the Moplah peasants the latter rebelled against the landlords and the British. The rich-poor conflict between the Jenmi landlords and the Moplah peasants was given distinct communal coloring by the colonial state since the landlords were Hindus and the peasants were Muslims. By 1896 the Moplah peasants' struggle assumed an aggressively communal orientation.

3)  Pabna - The Pabna movement took place between 1873-1885 in Bengal . Two prominent leaders of the Pabna peasants - Kesab Chandra Roy and Sambhunath Pal were Hindus. In 1873 the Pabna peasants formed an agrarian league which spread out the entire district very soon. Most of the newspapers which were pre-landlord (like Amrita Bazar Patrika) opposed the league. Majority of the peasant activists were Muslims (more than 2\3r'ds of the peasants, and about 70% of Pabna's population were Muslims) they painted it as a communal movement as the landlords were Hindus .

4) Deccan Riots -  The basis of the Deccan Riots, which erupted in 1875, lay in the evolution of the ryotwari system itself. We come across the emergence of a class of moneylenders who fleeced the peasants through high interest on loans (25% to 50%). The decline of the collective system of tax collection implied that unlike in the earlier days the moneylender was not subject to the executive and judicial authority of the village. The courts and the new laws polarized the caste differences between the Vanis (village moneylenders) and the Kunbis (cultivator caste) by favoring the former. This implied an increase in the transfer of holding from peasants to moneylenders. The immovable property of the Kunbi could also be sold to recover loans. Along with these problems was an increase of the population, the dislocation of the economy and an ill-conceived attempt to enhance rents by the colonial administration. Like the pattern we have noticed earlier, class conflict was given the form of

a caste conflict.

5) Koya Rebellion - In 1879- 1880 there occurred the Koya rebellion in the eastern Godavari tract of present day Andhra Pradesh which also affected some portions of the Malkangiri region of Koraput district in Orissa. It was led by Tomma Dora, the Koya leader. The movement reflected the problems faced by the tribals like the erosion of customary rights over forests, the exploitation by moneylenders who began to control the life of the Koyas through loans and land transfers. Tomma Dora was hailed by the Koyas as the 'King' of Malkangiri.

6) Birsa Munda Revolt - It started in 1895, led by Birsa against Dikus(outsiders like money lenders , Christian missionaries etc.) in Chotanagpur region of South Bihar.

Q.  Educated Gentry & Freedom struggle before 1900

A.  Efforts of the Educated Gentry

The 1850-1900 phase saw scattered and unorganized struggles among the workers. In this phase we come across sections of the educated gentry coming forward to focus on the problems of the workers. In 1870 Sasipada Banerjee, a Brahmo Samajist, founded the 'Working Men's Club' and published a journal from Baranagar (near Calcutta) in 1874. The Calcutta- Brahmo Samaj founded in 1878 the 'Working Men's Mission' to propagate religious morality, etc. among the workers.

                     By 1878 we come across Sorabjee Saprujee Bengalee and Narayan Meghajee Lokhundy

working amidst cotton mill laborers in Bombay. These attempts led to the drafting of a memorandum in 1884 which incorporated demands for a rest day on ever; Sunday, a half an-hour break at noon; a 6.30 a.m. to sunset working day; wages to the worker paid-by the 15th of the month following the month they have worked and that in case of injury they should receive full wages till they recovered and if they got maimed they should get pension. This memorandum was signed by about 5,000 workers and was submitted to the commission of 1884 appointed by the Government of Bombay. It left its imprint of the first Indian Factories Act of 1891.

                 In 1890 (April 24) Lakhundy convened another meeting attended by about 10,000 workers.

Two woman workers spoke at this meeting. A memorial asking for a weekly holiday was drawn up and sent to the Bombay Mill Owners' Association. This request was granted on June 10, 1890, and although perceived as a victory by the workers, it was without any legal sanction and hence it could not be enforced. The demand for a rest day in a week became a popular demand in almost all the industrial centers.

Q.  Matching year with strike

A.  1853 ------ River Transport

      1862------- Railway

      1877---------Nagpur Empress Mill

Q.  Reform movements in 19th century.

A.   The earliest expression of reform was in Bengal, initiated by Rammohun Roy. He founded the Atmiya Sabha in 1814, followed by Brahmo Samaj organized by him in 1829. The spirit of reform soon manifested itself in other parts of the country. The Pararnahansa Mandali and Prarthana Samaj in Maharashtra and Arya Samaj in Punjab and other parts of north India were some of the prominent movements among the Hindus. There were several other regional and caste movements like Kayastha Sabha in U.P. and Sarin Sabha in Punjab. Among the backward castes too reformation struck roots: The Satya Sodhak Samaj in Maharashtra and Sri Narayana Dharma Paripalana Sabha in Kerala. The

Ahmadiya and Aligarh movements, the Sing Sabha & the Rehnumai Mazdeyasan Sabha represented the spirit of reform among the Muslims, the Sikhs and the Parsees respectively. The following features are evident from the above account:

i)  Each of these reform movements was confined, by and large to one region or the other. Brahamo Samaj and the Arya Samaj did have branches in different parts of the country yet they were more popular in Bengal and Punjab respectively, that anywhere else.

ii)  These movements were confined to a particular religion or caste.

iii)  An additional feature of these movements was that they all emerged at different points of time in different parts of the country. Eor example in Bengal reform efforts were afoot at the beginning of the nineteenth century, but in Kerala they came up only towards the end of the nineteenth century. Despite this, there was considerable similarity in their aims and perspectives. All of them were concerned with the regeneration of society through social and educational reforms even if there were differences in their methods.

Q.  What were the various methods of reform adopted by the 19th century reformers?

A.  Different methods employed were -

Reform from within -

This technique was initiated by Rammohan Roy and followed throughout the 19th century. They believed that any reform in order to be effective had to emerge from within the society itself. Their efforts was to create a sense of awareness among the people. They tried to do this by publishing articles and organizing debates and discussions on various social problems. Rammohun's campaign against sati, Vidyasagar's pamphlets on widow marriage and B.M. Malabari's efforts to increase the age of consent are the examples of this.

Reforms through Legislation - Keshub Chandra Sen in Bengal, Mahadev Govind Ranade in Maharashtra and Viresalingam in Andhra-believed that reform efforts cannot really be effective unless supported by the state. Therefore, they appealed to the government to give legislative sanction for reforms like widow marriage, civil marriage and increase in the age of consent.

Reform through symbol of change - The third trend was an attempt to create symbols of change through individual activity. This was limited to the 'Derozians' or 'Young Bengal' who represented a radical stream within the reform movement. They stood for a rejection of tradition and revolt against accepted social norms. They were highly influenced by "the regenerating new thought from the West" and displayed a noncompromisingly rational attitude towards social problems.

Reform through Social work -The fourth trend was reform through social work as was evident in the activities of Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Arya Samaj and Ramakrishna Mission. There was a clear recognition among them of the limitations of purely intellectual effort if undertaken without supportive social work. Through social work they tried to disseminate ideas of reform and regeneration.

Q.  Describe Rationalism and Universalism

A.  Rationalism -

The early Brahmo reformers and members of 'Young Bengal' had taken a highly rational attitude towards socio-religious issues. They argue that all natural and social phenomena could be analyzed and understood purely in terms of physical and mechanical processes. Faith was sought to be replaced by rationality and socio-religious practices were evaluated from the standpoint of social utility. In Brahmo Samaj the rationalist perspective ' led to the repudiation of the infallibility of the Vedas . Aligarh movement founded by Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan Holding that religious tenets are not immutable emphasized the role of religion in the progress of Society, if religion did not keep in step with the times and meet the demand of society, it would get fossilized as had happened in the case of Islam in India.

Universalism -

An important religious idea in the nineteenth century was universalism a belief in the unity of godhead and an emphasis on religions being essentially the same. Rammohan considered different religions as national embodiments of universal theism. He was a defender of the basic and universal principles of all religions-monotheism of the Vedas and unitarianism of Christianity-and at the same time he attacked the polytheism of Hinduism and trinitarianism of Christianity. Sayyid Ahmad Khan echoed almost the same idea: all prophets had the same din (faith) and every country and nation had different prophets.

Q.  Make a list of five steps taken by Lord Lytton which tended to offend the Indians

A.  Lytton followed anti-Indian policies -

           Lytton sent an expensive expedition of Afghanistan which was financed out of Indian revenues. He removed import duties on cotton textiles to benefit British cloth industry at the cost of the nascent Indian textile industry. These steps were resented by politically conscious Indians. In domestic policy the Viceroy patronized these sections like the ruling princes and landholders who played a vital role in the continuance of the British rule. He viewed the aspirations of educated Indians with contempt. During his period the maximum age for appearing in the Indian Civil Service examination was reduced from 21 to 19 years. Since the examination was held only in London, it was in any case difficult for the Indians to take this examination. The lowering of the age was looked upon as a step calculated to prevent Indians from appearing in this examination. The Indian Association took up the issue and launched an agitation over it in the country. Public meetings were organized to protest against the passing of the Vernacular Press Act and the Arms Act. The former imposed restrictions on the newspapers and journals printed in Indian languages. This caused deep

resentment among the Indian societies. Amrita Bazar Patrika which was published in Bengali till then, changed overnight into an English medium so as to escape the restrictions imposed under this Act. Under the Arms Act, Indians were made to pay a license fee in order to possess a weapon but Europeans and Eurasians were exempted from doing so. Special concessions were also given to landholders.

Q. What do you understand by the ILbert Bill controversy?

A.   Lord Lytton was succeeded by Lord Ripon in 1880. Ripon's approach was different. He held that the educated Indians possessed legitimate aspirations in keeping with their education and the pledges given by the British Parliament from time to time in this regard should be honored.He repealed the Vernacular Press Act, promoted lkal self-government institutions, encouraged the spread of education and brought the Afghan War to an end. A bitter agitation directed at Ripon and his pro-Indian policies erupted over the so-called Ilbert Bill among the Anglo-Indians who had been annoyed by him.

Ilbert Bill - The Criminal Procedure amendment Bill, or the Ilbert Bill putt Indian Judges on the

same footing as Europeans in dealing with all cases in the Bengal Presidency. Its purpose was to enable qualified Indians in the mofussil to try Europeans for criminal offenses (in Presidency towns they were already allowed to do so). The Bill was brought forward because Indians were now rising in the ranks of the judicial service. It involved the possibility of trial of Europeans by Indian judges for criminal offenses without a jury. It also gave right to Europeans to appeal to the High Court if they were not satisfied. But this provoked a storm of angry criticism amongst the Anglo-Indians. Ripon found that even the civil service was in sympathy with the opposition. In the press and in public meetings Indian character and culture were severely criticized. Ultimately the Government had to bow before this hostile opinion and the Bill was amended in such a manner that its very purpose was defeated.

Q.  List the aim and objectives of the Congress as defined by its first President.

A.  The objectives as:

1)  Promotion of personal intimacy and friendship amongst the countrymen,

2)  eradication of all possible prejudices relating to race, creed or provinces,

3)  consolidation of sentiments of national unity,

4)  recording of the opinions of educated classes on pressing problems of the day, and laying down lines for future course of action in public interest.

                 Besides these demands the President enumerated the blessings conferred by 'the British on India. He assured that the educated Indians were thoroughly loyal and consistent well wishers of the Government. The Congress leaders had tremendous faith in what they described as the British sense of justice. They were not thinking in terms of expelling the British . All they wanted was that the policies adopted by the Government of India should aim at the welfare and good of lndians which meant really the advancement of their interests. For this purpose they wanted greater share in running the government.

Q. Mention resolutions passed by the first Congress in its first meeting .

A.  The first congress adopted nine resolutions:

#  In one resolution demand was put forward for the appointment of a Royal Commission for enquiring into Indian affairs on which Indians would be adequately represented.

#  The other resolution demanded the abolition of the Indian Council of the Secretary of State for India. The Congress wanted that the Secretary of State should be responsible directly to the British Parliament. This demand was based on the idea that the British people were just and fair and, if properly informed, they would never deviate from the right path.

#  There was also a resolution on foreign policy which condemned the annexation of Upper Burma.

# Other resolutions covered subjects such as liberalizing the Constitution and functions of the Central and Provincial Legislative Councils, holding of simultaneous examination for the Civil Service in Britain and India and the need to reduce expenditure on the army, etc

Q. What do you understand by Safety Valve Theory? Write in about a hundred words.

A.  If a body like the Indian National Congress had been founded by an Indian, it would have been accepted as something normal and logical. But the fact that the idea of an all-India political organization was given concrete and final shape by an Englishmen -A.O. Hume has given rise to many speculations. Hume was not just any Englishman: he belonged to the Indian Civil Service. It is

said that while in service he had come across a mass of material which suggested that as a result of the sufferings of the masses and alienation of intellectuals, much discontent had accumulated and this could pose a threat to the continuance of British rule. The memories of the great revolt of 1857 were still fresh. Moreover, Hume himself had said that his aim was to provide, to use his own expression, a safety valve' providing control to the "great and growing forces generated by" the British themselves. This has been juxtaposed with W.C. Bannerjee's statement that Hume was acting under the direct advice of Dufferin. These two facts studied together gave rise to the argument that the Indian National Congress grew out of the British conspiracy, the aim of which was to provide a peaceful and

constitutional outlet to the discontent amongst the educated Indians and thus provide against the threat to the Raj. 

EHI - 01(3rd Part)

Third Part

Q.  How and by which sections was the Peasantry exploited? Write in ten lines.
A.  Although the trade monopoly and direct appropriation of state revenues enriched the East India Company considerably, its main source of income was now derived from the land. After entrenching itself in Bengal, it spread its power in India through wars and treaties. To extract as much money as possible it devised new systems of land settlements -Permanent, Ryotwari & Mahalwari -each more oppressive than the other.
The Permanent Settlement which was effective in Bengal Presidency and in large parts of north India. It did not recognize the hereditary rights of the peasants on land, which they had earlier enjoyed. The loyal zamindars and revenue-collectors were now given the proprietary rights on land. The cultivators were reduced to the status of simple tenants. But even the newly created landlords were not given absolute rights. Their situation was also deliberately left very precarious. They had to pay to the Company 10/11th of the entire rent derived from the cultivators and if they failed to do so, their property was sold to others. The other land settlements were no better. In all of these the peasants had to pay beyond their means & any adverse natural shifts like droughts or flood compelled them to go for loans to the money lenders who charged exorbitant interest. This made the peasants so heavily indebted that they were ultimately forced to sell their land to these money lenders. It is because of this that the money lenders were so hated in rural society. The peasantry was also oppressed by petty officials in administration who extracted money on the slightest pretexts. If the peasants went to the law court to seek redress of their grievances, they were bound to be totally ruined. When the crop was good the peasants had to pay back their past debts; if it was bad, they were further indebted. This nexus between the lower officials, law courts and money lenders created a vicious circle which made the peasantry desperate and ready to welcome any opportunity for change of regime.

Q. Write a small note, on the space given below, on the leaders of the Rebellion.
A.  Bakht Khan
                          In Delhi Bahadur Shah was the leader. But the real power lay with the soldiers. Bakht Khan, who had led the revolt of the soldiers at Bareilly, arrived in Delhi bn 3rd July,1857. From that date on, he exercised the real authority. He formed a Court of soldiers composed of both Hindu and Muslim rebels.

Nana Saheb and Tantya Tope
At Kanpur the revolt was led by Nana Saheb, the adopted son of Peshwa Baji Rao & Tantya Tope. The rebellious sepoys also supported Nana Saheb & under his leadership both the military & civilian elements were united. They expelled the British from Kanpur and declared Nana Saheb as Peshwa who acknowledged Baliadur Shah as the Emperor of India. Most of the fighting was, however, carried on by Tantya Tope on his behalf.

The Begum of Awadh
                       At Lucknow the Begum of Awadh provided the leadership and proclaimed her son, Birjis Kadr, as the Nawab of Awadh. But here again, the more popular leader was Maulavi Ahmadullah of Faizabad, who organized rebellions & fought the British.

Rani Lakshmi Bai
                    Rani Lakshmi Bai of Jhansi was another great popular leader. She believed that she had been robbed of her ruling rights in defiance of recognized Hindu law. Though she showed some hesitation at the initial stage, she fought valiantly once she joined the ranks of the rebels.

Kunwar Singh
But the most representative and outstanding leader was Kunwar Singh of Arrah. Under his leadership the military and civil rebellion were so completely fused that the British dreaded him most.

Q. What were some of the main reasons for the defeat of such a mighty rebellion?
A.  Lack of a Unified Programme and Ideology
                     The rebellion jolted the British government and administration in India. But the rebels did not know what to create in its place! They had no forward-looking plan in mind. This made them rely on the outmoded feudal system with Bahadur Shah at its head. The other prominent leaders of rebellion like, Nana Saheb, Begum of Awadh, Rani of Jhansi, etc., were also representatives of the old feudal world. This system had lost its vitality and was unable to withstand the onslaught of the British. It was because of the failure of these rulers, that the British had earlier been able to conquer almost the whole of India.

Lack of Unity Among Indians
There was no broad based unity among the Indian people could. While sepoys of the Bengal army were revolting, some soldiers in Panjab and south India fought on the side of the British to crush these rebellions. Similarly, there were no accompanying rebellions in most of eastern and southern India. The Sikhs also did not support the rebels. All these groups had their reasons to do so. The possibility of the revival of Mughal authority created a fear among the Sikhs who had faced so much oppression at the hands of the Mughals. Similarly, the Rajput chieftains in Rajasthan and Nizam in Hyderabad were so much harassed by the Marathas that they dreaded the revival of Maratha power. Besides this, there were some elements of the peasantry that had profited from the British rule. They supported the British during the revolt. The zamindars of Bengal Presidency were the creation of the British; and had all the reasons to support them. The same applied to the big merchants of Calcutta,
Bombay and Madras who did not go over to the rebels but supported the British.

Lack of Support from the Educated Indians
The modern educated Indians also did not support the revolt because, in their view, the revolt was backward-looking. This educated middle class was the product of the British system of education and they believed mistakenly that the British would lead the country towards modernization.

Disunity Among the Leaders
The main problem however, was lack of unity in the ranks of rebels themselves. Their
leaders were suspicious and jealous of each other & often indulged in petty quarrels. The
Begum of Awadh, for example, quarrelled with Maulavi Ahmadullah, and the Mughal princes
with the sepoy-generals.

Military Superiority of the British
                     Another major factor for the defeat of the rebels was the British superiority in arms. The
British imperialism, at the height of its power the world over and supported by most of the Indian princes and chiefs, proved militarily too strong for the rebels. While the rebels were lacking in discipline and a central command, the British continued to have a constant supply of disciplined soldiers, war materials and money from British. Sheer courage could not win against a powerful and determined enemy who planned its strategy skillfully.

Q.  What was the impact of Rebellion on Indian society.
A.  British was jolted by the revolt, some of the measures taken were -
Transfer of Power
The first major change was that the power to govern lndia passed from the East India Company to the British Crown through an Act of 1858. Now a Secretary of State for India aided by a Council was to be responsible for the governance of India. Earlier this authority was wielded by the Directors of the Company.

Changes in Military Organization
The second drastic change was effected in the army Steps were taken to prevent any further revolt by the Indian soldiers. Firstly, the number of European soldiers was increased and fixed at one European to two Indian soldiers in Bengal Army and two to five in Bombay and Madras armies. Moreover, the European troops were kept in key geographical and military positions. The crucial branches of the army like artillery were put exclusively in European hands. Secondly, the organization of the Indian section of the army was now based on the policy of "divide and rule". Regiments were created on the basis of caste, community and region to prevent the development of any nationalistic feeling among the soldiers .

Divide and Rule
This policy of "divide and rule" was also introduced in the civilian population. Since the British thought that the revolt was a conspiracy hatched by the Muslims the latter were severely punished and discrimination made against them in public appointments and in other areas. This policy was later reversed and a belated appeasement of Muslims began. This policy of preferential treatment of the Muslims was adopted towards the end of the 19th century. These policies created problems for Indian freedom struggle, and contributed to the growth of communalism.

New Policy towards the Princes
Another important change was in the British policies towards the Princely states. The earlier policy of annexation was now abandoned & the rulers of these states were now authorized to adopt heirs provided it is permitted by the British. This was done as a reward to those native rulers who had remained loyal to the British during the revolt. The policy of paramountacy was introduced. The authority of the Indian rulers over particular territories was completely subordinated to the authority of the British and they were converted into a Board of privileged dependents.

Search for New Friends
Besides these changes, the British now turned to the most reactionary groups among the Indians, like the zamindars, princes and landlords, for strengthening their fortune in the country. In fact, the revolt of 1857 brought to the surface the real reactionary nature of the British rule in India. It made most of the Indians realize that the British rule in India was essentially anti people and it was bound to be oppressive and hostile to their national interest.

Q.  What were the different processes by which the jurisdiction of the Company grew.
A.  The jurisdiction and control of the company grew by different processes, namely the acquisition of Zamindari rights, conquest or cession of territory and assumption of the Diwani. In 1698 the company bought the Zamindari rights of the villages of Sutanati, Calcutta and Govindpur. In 1757 the company acquired rights in the twenty-four parganas on the basis of a quit rent which was subsequently assigned to the company. In 1760 Mir Kassim ceded to the company the district of Burdwan, Chittagong and Midnapur and this was confirmed by the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam.

Q.  Which was the first major Act passed by the British Parliament to regulate Indian affairs.
A.  The regulating act of 1773 was the first major attempt by British Parliament to regulate Indian affairs. It constituted for the first time a supreme government, headed by a Governor General of Fort William in Bengal and four Councilors, having the supervisory authority over the presidencies of Bombay and Madras. The presidencies were forbidden to make war or peace with Indian states
without the consent of Governor General and Council, except in cases of imminent necessity and also in the cases where they had received direct orders from the court of Directors. The Act also provided for the establishment of a Supreme Court of Judicature at Calcutta. The Regulating Act recognized the right of British Parliament to directly intervene in the civil, military and revenue affairs of the company's territories in India.

Q.  Write three important features of the Permanent Settlement.
A.  # Zamindars became the owners of the entire land in their zamindaries and became agents of the government in collecting land revenue
# the land revenue was fixed and
# the share of the zamindar was specified
OR
1) Permanent Settlement: In 1793 Permanent Settlement for Bengal, Bihar and Orissa was introduced. Its special features were:
a) The Zamindars became the owners of the entire land in their zamindaries and became agents of the government in collecting land revenue.
b) A Zarnindar was to pay over nine-tenth of what he received from the feasting to the state, retaining a tenth as remuneration for his exertion.
c) The land revenue to be collected from Zamindar was permanently fixed by declaring Zamindars as the owners of land

Q.  Write 3 main achievements and 3 disadvantages of the new judicial system.
A.  The advantages of the new judicial set up were-
#  The rule of law.
#  Equality before law
#  the growth of the professional and trained judicial hierarchy.
                                               However, the new judicial system suffered from certain disadvantages -
In criminal cases the Europeans had separate courts and even laws. They were tried by European judges who at times gave them undue protection. In civil matters the situation was quite serious. The courts were situated at distant places. the procedures were long and time consuming. Justice was proving very expensive. Village committees and panchayats lost importance even in the village matters.

Q.  Mention three important features of the Act of 1858.
A.  All sections of political opinion in Britain agreed that the East lndia Company should be set aside and British Government should assume direct responsibility for the administration of India. The British crown by a proclamation in 1858 assumed the direct control of lndia.
The three important features were -
1)  The dual control of the Board of control & the Directors of the company was abolished.
2)  By the Act of 1858 lndia was to be governed directly by and in the name of the Crown through a Secretary of State in England. The Secretary of State was to he assisted by a Council of 15 members of whom at least 9 would have served in India for not less than ten years, & would have left India not more than ten years before their appointment to the Council.
3) The Central administration in India continued to remain in the hands of the Governor General who was given the new title of Viceroy. An executive council was formed to help the Governor General. The members of executive council were to act as the heads of departments and advisors to Governor General.

Q.  How did the policy of free trade help British Industry.
A.  In the nineteenth century the developing capitalist economies of Europe had erected high tariff walls. Britain was finding it difficult to get markets for its exports. The policy of free trade in India meant a ready market for its Lancashire textiles while India's export surplus helped to counter balance British deficits. Besides military and strategic advantages, this indeed was a solid advantage which the British gained from the Indian Empire.
                    The British rule inhibited and curbed indigeneous industry through a variety of structural constraints. The government policies actively promoted the European enterprise and discriminated against Indians. The railway network and freight rates encouraged traffic with ports as against inland centers. The organized money market was largely under the British control. The British tried to justify their policy by pointing to the remittance of capital which had been invested in railways, plantations, mines and mills, which, they proclaimed would lead to the development and modernization of India. But the establishment of railways was geared to British commercial and strategic needs, while plantations, mines and mills promoted interlocking of British financial, commercial and industrial activity and served to intensify the capitalist exploitation of the Indians by the British. The land revenue policy became interwoven with its commercial policy. The government made no worthwhile effort for a long time for the improvement of agriculture.

Q.  List three important features of the reorganization of army by the British.
A.  The proportion of Europeans in the army was raised. (In 1857 there were 4O000 Europeans and 215,OO Indians). In Bengal it was fixed in the ratio of I:2and in Madras and Bombay 2:5.
ii)  In the important branches of army like European hold was established over negligible Indians. Later the same policy was followed about tanks and armored corps.
iii)  A distinction of martial and non-martial races was made and the former were recruited in large numbers. The soldiers of Bihar, Awadh, Bengal and south India who had participated in the revolt of 1857 were declared non-martial. While the soldiers who supported the British like, Sikhs, Gurkhas and Pathans were declared martial.
iv) TO divide the soldiers belonging to different race or caste they were put in different companies.
v) Efforts were made to encourage regional loyalties among the soldiers so that they may not unite on national considerations. Thus the homogeneity of the army was broken up. Indian soldiers were used in wars of the British outside India.

Q.  Write three areas where the British administration had a hostile attitude towards Indians.
A. Following -
i)  Education: New education policy was introduced by the British in mid 1830. English also was encouraged , the main idea was to create a section of educated Indians who are loyal to British and also serve British in lower administrative positions . But with increasing education the educated Indians developed critical attitude towards the British rule and began organizing the national movement. This alarmed the British and they adopted a hostile attitude towards higher education.

ii)  Public Services: The British spent huge amounts on army and wars. While fund allocation for health, irrigation, sanitation and public works department was meager
iii)  Curbs on Press: The credit for the growth of printing press also goes to the British. But as soon as the press started playing an important role in building public opinion and growth of consciousness a number of legislations were passed to check its freedom. The Vernacular Press Act of 1878 was a serious attempt in curbing the press.
iv) Racial Discrimination: The British in the recruitment of civil and military officers and judicial matters followed a policy of discrimination against the Indians. British enjoyed all the privileges and Indians were deprived of their due right.
V) Labour Laws: With the growing plantations and factories the number of work force or laborers was rising. These laborers used to work for long hours in unhygienic and poor working conditions. Most of these organizations were owned by the British while the work force was Indian. The British made no serious attempt to provide relief for laborers. The factory Act passed in 1881 and 1891 mainly dealt with child labor and women. These could provide very little relief. While for plantations all the laws were favorable to planters almost all of whom were Europeans.

Q.  How with the help of the right of Paramountcy did the British interfere in the affairs of the Princely States.
A.  After the revolt of 1857 the British realized that the Princely States could play an important role in checking the discontent of Indian masses. Therefore the policy of annexation of lndian states was given up and their co-operation was sought in strengthening the British imperialism. The Princely States were asked to extend their co-operation. A number of powers were restored to them and they were assured that if they continued to be loyal to the British they would not be harmed. Through the policy of Paramountcy a close check on the states was also maintained. Now no Indian ruler was allowed to maintain relations with other countries except through the British. British interfered in day to day functioning of the states through their agents called Residents. British Residents and nominated ministers were posted in almost all the states. They were to protect British interests and implement British policies. The right to recognize the successors was also reserved with the British government. If any ruler did not fall in line he was replaced with a person of the British choice. Likewise the rulers of Baroda in 1873 and Manipur in 1891 were removed. In other states also a policy of interference was followed. In spite of these policies majority of Indian rulers supported the British to secure their status and privileges.

EHI - 01(2nd Part)

Second Part 

Q.  How would you explain the alliance between the Indian capitalist class and the nationalist leadership?
A.  During the colonial rule,the growth of national capital was subjected to serious limitations. There was lot of struggle against British business interests which exercised powerful influence on policy-making in England and also against the unsympathetic British Indian Government. It was a struggle against foreign capitalist domination, textile centers like Manchester and inimical policies adopted by British Indian Government to stop the growth of industrial sector in India . Infrastructural developments particularly the railways and transport system, created conditions of development not only for foreign capital in some sectors (e.g. jute factories, coal mines, tea and coffee plantations) but also for indigenous capital. But due to the policies adopted by colonialists , the progress of Indian
industrial capital was painfully slow and halting. The first mill started in 1854 in India facing criticism and opposition from several imperialist quarters and the development of Industrial sector occurred only during war time or inter war period . This led to the emergence of alliance between the Indian capitalist class and the nationalist leadership who fully supported national capital. The unfavorable British policies towards the Indian business interests that led to a confrontation between the colonial state and the Indian business groups, resulting in the latter joining the Indian National Movement.

Q.  Write about the nature of the colonial state.
A.  British government cunningly adopted policy of laissez faire (non intervention) to suit the needs of British capital and industries while rebuffing Indian Capital . for example, the heavy governmental support to British private capital in Indian railways, in the form of guaranteed interest irrespective of profit and loss. This was evidently beneficial to British business interests. On the other hand laissez faire was insisted upon in the sphere of tariff policy: refusal to put any significant tax burden on imported Manchester cloth for instance, was good for British interests and bad for all Indian mill owners. Again laissez faire was invoked to absolve the government from any intervention in trade in
'food-grains (including export of grains) during the famines in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The political structure in Britain ensured that important business interests could influence policy-making in India through Parliament. Other aspects of colonialism in India were the commercialization of agriculture and a slow and uneven pace of industrialization. Indian economic advance was dependent on the requirements of colonialism and the colonial State played an active role in shaping the Indian economy so as to serve the imperial interests.

FAMINES In India
1853-55 - Bombay ,Madras Presidency , Rajputana
1860-61 - Kutch , Punjab , Rajputana , UP
1862 - Deccan
1866-67 - Northern Madras, Hyderabad, Mysore ,Bihar , Orissa
1868- 70 - CP(MP), Bombay , Bihar , parts of Bengal
1876-78 - My sore, Hyderabad, Madras Presidency ,Bombay , UP
1888-89 - Orissa , Bihar
1896-97 - Rajputana, Bombay Presidency , Gujarat , CP
1905-06 - Bombay Presidency
1906-07 - Bihar
1907-08 - U.P , C.P.

Q.  How did the British policies in India affect the Indian economy?
A.  The British economic policies in India led to the ruin of Indian economy.
De- industrialization , wealth drain, unemployment of artisans , commercialization of agriculture leading to famines , impoverishment of peasants and other classes were the result of policies adopted by British .

Agriculture -
The British agrarian policy was mainly aimed at drawing out maximum land revenue. It introduced different types of land revenue systems in different places. In the Permanent Settlement areas the land revenue was fixed for the Zamindari (to be paid to the State). The Zamindars kept charging more from the peasants than what they had to pay to the State. Most of the time the peasants had to borrow money from money lenders otherwise they were evicted from land. The money lenders charged exorbitant rate of interest for the money they lent to the peasants. In the Ryotwari system too, the revenue was though temporarily fixed and was subjected to temporary revision, it was still too high
for the peasants to pay. As a result of the British land revenue policy large number of peasants were reduced to landless laborers. The number of landless laborers was as high as 20% of the population (52.4 million with their dependents) in 1901. Due to commercialization of agriculture, large number of cash crops (like indigo, cotton, sugarcane) were grown which were taken by the British on dictated prices to be used as raw materials for industries. Farmers were trapped with loans to grow commercial crops and were not allowed to grow food grains required for survival even during famine. Cotton and indigo cultivators were the worst affected.

Industry -
           The artisans were also facing great hardships. Since the British were for years not willing to let India's textiles be imported into Britain and later their export was no longer economical .Restrictions were imposed on import of Indian textiles in Britain while the British could bring their machine-made textiles virtually without any taxes to India. The Indian artisan was not in a position to compete with the goods produced by machines in England. This created a situation where large number of artisans were rendered jobless. The workers in factories, mines, and plantations also suffered. They were paid low wages and lived in extreme poverty.
                  The newly emerging Indian industrialists also faced hardships due to the government's policies relating to trade, tariff, taxation and transport. The British capitalists who had vast resources were provided with all the facilities. The Indian capitalist class that had just started emerging and needed government patronage, was, on the other hand completely ignored.

Q.  Why was it that during the early years of colonial rule the Indian opposition to the foreign rule could not be properly channelized?
A.  Almost all the sections of Indian population were suffering under the British rule. However, this discontent could not automatically lead to the development of a new consciousness among the people. This discontent expressed itself at times, in the form of sporadic revolts against some officer, zamindar or a new regulation. There were a number of factors due to which the dissatisfaction with the foreign rule did not generate a proper national consciousness. Vastness of the country with backward means of communication, lack of education, absence of a common language, and differences in the nature of grievances in different regions due to differences in the working of the administrative system were some of the important reasons.

Q.  What are the factors responsible for rising national consciousness.
A.  Unified system of Administration - For a better exploitation of the Indian resources the British brought large parts of the country under a uniform system of administration. Land revenue administration, police, law and order machinery and judicial system were some of the important measures adopted for bringing about this uniformity in administration. This system unknowingly brought the whole country under uniform administration thus stimulating the sense of oneness among masses .
Communication and Transport Network - Postal services and telegraph services were extended and improved throughout the country as all the major towns were linked with telegraph, it was all done to facilitate trade. After 1853, railway transportation was also improved .The main advantage of Railways for the British was a cheap mode of transport to carry goods to ports and back. But once the railway network developed, passenger traffic also increased,& people living at distant places got new opportunity to interact with one another creating a bond of oneness .

Printing Press - The introduction of the printing press made the transmission of ideas and learning less expensive. A number of newspapers and periodicals in vernacular languages started appearing. Through these publications the problems in different parts of the country could be shared by people. This is how played an important role in the development of national consciousness among the literate sections of the people.

New Education System - The British introduced a new system of education already English
replaced Persian as an official language. The main idea behind this system was to create a loyal section of Indians who would effectively carry out clerical and lower administrative tasks for the British.
                However the modern educational system familiarized the educated classes with the ideas of equality, liberty and nationalism, in an atmosphere of growing disillusionment with the colonial rule.So the educated Indians turned towards contemporary nationalist movements in Europe (like German unification, Italian unification and nationalist movement against Turkish empire). The Indians who were studying in England found on their return to India that they were denied all the rights which were taken for granted in the European countries.

British policy of Expansion - The British in their hunger to control more land continued their policy of expansion . They kept extending their territories by annexing Indian states, one after the other, even if those states were not at war with the British. The important among
these were annexations of Sind (1843), Punjab (1849) Rangoon and Pegu (1852) and Awadh
(1856)-Jhansi, Satara and Nagpur were also taken over. The Indian rulers were getting apprehensive of the British policy.

Intellectual Awakening - Nineteenth Century India is marked by a process of social reform and intellectual awakening. The leading intellectuals of the nineteenth century contributed to the awakening of national consciousness. The British, in order to provide a justification for foreign rule had tried to project that Indians had no achievement to their credit in the field of Science and Technology and were incapable of providing a proper government to the masses. The educated Indians countered this thesis by bringing to light the achievements of Indians in art, architecture, literature, philosophy and science.

Racial Discrimination - The attitude of racial superiority adopted by the English also contributed to the growth of Nationalist sentiments. Apart from social behavior this discrimination was carried in judicial matters as well.

Q.  What was the nature of early peasant and tribal revolts?
A.  The Indians opposed British exploitation and the harmful policies at different levels. Gradually this resistance took the form of a national movement, although the process in the initial stages was rather slow. The Indian resistance may broadly be divided into two forms;
(i) the peasant and tribal movements, and
 (ii) the middle class opposition.

                The early peasant and tribal revolts were spontaneous and lacked an organized effort. These
revolts were extremely violent, led by traditional elements (dispossessed local chiefs, zamindars or religious figures). These revolts were predominantly of a lower class social character.The most important factor behind all these movements was a combined protest against British policies. At times these were also sparked off by some oppressive policies of a zamindar, money lender or an administrative officer. Some of the tribal n peasant revolts were - Travancore revolt (1800-09), Bhil revolt (1818-31), Ho revolt (1820-21) and Khasi revolt (1829-31) were among important peoples movements. And so were Wahabi movement (1830-69), Kol revolt (183 1). Faraizi movement (1 834-47) and Santhal revolt (1855-56).Indigo revolt (1859-60) in Bengal, Kuki revolt (1860-90) in Tnpura, Kuka revolt (1869-72) in Punjab, Pabna Peasant Movement (1872-73) in Bengal, Vasudev Balvant Phadke's Revolt (1879) in Maharashtra and Birsa Munda's revolt (1899-1900) in South Bihar.

Q.  In the above section you read a portion of the proclamation issued by the 'rebels' in Delhi in 1857. List 3 main grievances of the Indian people on the basis of this proclamation.
A.  i) The increase in land revenue.
      ii) The toll tax (chowkeedaree tax) was increased causing loss to merchants.
     iii) The respectable people have lost their position and jobs.

Q.  Why did the educated Indian middle class become disillusioned with the British after 1857?
A.  Before 1857, the educated middle class thought that the British rule would modernize India and the Indians would enjoy the fruits of this modernization. But after 1857 the British repressive policies kept on increasing and the people were denied all their rights. In the beginning (first half of the 19th century), this class was of the opinion that the means of communication, railways and other industrial enterprises were going to benefit Indians. Under this understanding they therefore supported the British policies but gradually it became clear that the British administrative measures were to help the British rule, and, their economic policies were benefiting the British merchants and capitalists. Once the Indian middle class realized this, they started protesting against the colonial rule.
The middle class worked in two ways-
1)  They started writing books, articles and publishing newspapers to critically analyze the British policies and developing consciousness among the masses.
2) The second method adopted by the middle classes was to form organizations, associations and societies for joint programms and activities.

Q.  How did the formation of organizations help in the growth of National consciousness?
A.  Some of the early organizations were the Landholder's Society (1838), Bengal British India Society (1843), British India Association (1851)in Bengal; the Bombay Association and Deccan Association (1852) in Maharashtra, the Madras Native Association in Madras.
           The main aim of these organizations was collective action against the British policies harming
their interests. Their methods were mostly legal actions in courts or petition against the East India Company & British parliament. They wanted reforms to be included in the Company's charter of 1853. But the charter of 1853 failed to satisfy their aspirations.
                       After the take over of India's administration by the British Crown in 1858, new hopes
kindled among the Indian middle classes. They thought that the British government would stop the economic exploitation and work for the welfare of the country. Soon they realized that the British Crown too was out to exploit India economically. Now the political activities increased and a number of new organizations appeared. In England was formed London India Association which was later merged with the East India Association (1866). In Maharashtra was formed Poona Sarwajanik Sabha (1870) and Indian Association (1876). In Bengal was formed Indian National Conference (1883) and in Madras Mahajan Sabha.
                    As compared to the earlier organizations formed by middle class elements these organizations were political. Their main aim was to protest against the British policies through petitions and resolutions. They tried to achieve mass awakening through public meetings and statements. They also exchanged views on the national issues. Actually these organizations opened the way for the formation of a strong all India organization, Indian National Congress in 1885.

EHI-01 (1'st Part)

First Part

Q.  Discuss in about ten lines the main features of Colonialism.
A.  There are two basic features of colonialism -
a)  The complete subordination of the colony , politically , economically and ideologically to the needs of the imperialist power.
b)  Economic exploitation of the colony or the appropriation of the colony's economic surplus by the metropolis.
                Colonial power controlled the politics ,policies of the subjugated colony . Colonial interests
were paramount , administration ,policies adopted were all for the welfare of colonial power . The culture , society undergoes transformation influenced by colonial power. The ideas and ideologies of colonialists were imposed on colony . The economy was reshaped to benefit the colonial power . Revenues collected through taxes , home charges ,land revenues through Permanent land settlement , Ryotwari or Mahalwari settlement were siphoned off to colonial country on dubious pretexts. Salaries , pensions of colonial officers were paid through taxes . Subordinate colony was mischievously debared from industrialization due to skewed policies etc. Drain theory and De- industrialization were important theories that proves that wealth drain from colony to colonial power .

Q.  Discuss the two major objectives of the East India Company in about ten lines.
A.  The Company had two basic objectives -
1)  The first was to acquire a monopoly of trade with India. This meant that other English or European merchants or trading companies should not compete with it in purchase and sale of lndian products. Nor should the Indian merchants do so. This would enable the East India Company to buy lndian products as cheaply as possible and sell they in World markets at as high a price as possible. Thus, they would be able to reap in maximum benefits through trading monopoly . The English competitors were kept out by persuading the British Government to grant the East India Company a Royal Charter giving them exclusive rights in Britain to trade with India and the East. Against the European rivals the Company had to wage long and fierce wars on land and the sea. To acquire monopoly against Indian traders and to prevent lndian rulers from interfering with its trade, the Company took advantage of the disintegration of the Mughal Empire to acquire increasing political domination.

2)  The second major objective of colonialism at this stage was to directly appropriate or take over governmental revenues through control over state power. The East India Company required large financial resources to wage wars in lndia & on the seas against European rivals & lndian rulers and to maintain naval forces, forts and armies around their trading posts, etc. The much needed financial resources had, therefore, to be raised in India from the Indian people. This provided another incentive to make territorial conquests in India.
                Both the objectives -the monopoly of trade and appropriation of government revenues - were rapidly fulfilled with the conquest firstly of Bengal and parts of South India and then over the years of the rest of India. The East India Company now used its political power to acquire monopolistic control over Indian trade and handicraft products. Indian traders were gradually replaced and ruined, while the weavers and other craftsmen were compelled either to sell their products at uneconomic rates or to work for the Company at low wages. It is important to note that at this stage there was no large scale import of British goods into India because the British produced hardly any goods which could be sold in lndia in competition with Indian products; rather the reverse occurred, that is, there was increase in exports of Indian textiles, etc. The weavers were, for example, not ruined at this stage by British imports but because of the Company's monopoly and their exploitation by being forced to produce for the Company under uneconomic conditions.
                    With political conquest, the East India Company acquired direct control over the revenues of the Indian states. Moreover, both Company and its servants extorted illegally immense wealth from Indian merchants, officials, nobles, rulers and zamindars. In fact, this element of plunder and direct seizure of surplus was very strong in the first stage of colonialism. Gradually, large number of highly paid British officials were appointed in India and their salaries and pensions became a form of surplus appropriation .

Q.  List the main features of the monopoly trade phase of colonialism in India.
A.  This period witnessed large scale drain of wealth from India. This wealth played an important role in financing Britain's industrial revolution. Drain of Wealth from India constituted 2 to 3 per cent of Britain's national income at the time. The East India Company now used its political power to acquire
monopolistic control over Indian trade and handicraft products. Indian traders were gradually replaced and ruined, while the weavers and other craftsmen were compelled either to sell their products at uneconomic rates or to work for the Company at low wages. It is important to note that at this stage there was no large scale import of British goods into India because the British produced hardly any goods which could be sold in lndia in competition with Indian products; rather the reverse occurred, that is, there was increase in exports of Indian textiles, etc. The weavers were, for example, not ruined at this stage by British imports but because of the Company's monopoly and their exploitation by being forced to produce for the Company under uneconomic conditions.

Q.  Discuss the basic forms of surplus extraction or exploitation and social cultural changes that took place during the second and third stages of colonialism in India.
A.  Second stage- Britain after 1750 underwent the Industrial Revolution. The newly emerged industrial capitalists started attacking the East India Company and the forms of its exploitation of India. They demanded that colonial administration and policy in India should now serve their interests which were very different from those of the East India Company. They did not gain much from a monopoly trade in Indian products or from the Company's control over Indian revenues. They wanted India to serve as a market for their ever-increasing output of manufactured goods, especially textiles. They also needed from India exports of raw materials, especially cotton, and food grains.
Since the British were for years not willing to let India's textiles be imported into Britain and later their export was no longer economic, thus exports from India could consist only of agricultural raw materials and other non manufactured goods. India thus became a subordinate trading partner of Britain, as a market to be exploited and as a dependent colony to produce and supply the raw materials and food-stuffs Britain needed. India's economic surplus was appropriated through trade based on manipulated currency exchange rate.
                   As a result, Britain increasingly produced and exported goods which were produced in factories using advanced technology and less labor, and in which level of productivity and wages were high. On the other hand, India produced agricultural raw materials through orthodox methods of production using great deal of labor leading to low productivity and low wages. This international division of labor was not only highly unfavorable to India but was unnatural and artificial and was introduced and maintained forcibly through colonial domination.
                    In 1813, Charter Act was passed by which the Company had lost most of its political and economic power in India ,the real power being wielded now by the British Government which started ruling India in the interests of the British capitalist class as a whole. The British government started changing the existing economic, political, administrative and socio-cultural settings in India .
In the economic field started integrating India's colonial economy with the British and world capitalist economy. The chief instrument of this was the introduction of free trade. All import duties in India were either totally removed or drastically reduced to nominal rates. Thus India was thrown open to British manufactures. Free entry was also now given to British capitalists to develop tea, coffee and indigo plantations, trade, transport, mining and modern industries in India. The British Indian Government gave active state help to these capitalists.
                      In the agrarian field , British introduced Permanent and Ryotwari system . Sale and purchase of land was introduced .For exporting raw materials and importing manufactured goods, emphasis was given on improving transportation both railways and waterways were improved .Emphasis was given on improving communication thus modern postal and telegraph system was introduced to facilitate economic transactions. Many changes were now brought about in the administrative field. Legal and judicial structure of India was overhauled to promote capitalist commercial relations and maintain law and order. The changes were related to criminal law, law of contract and legal procedures. Personal law related to marriage and inheritance, was largely left untouched since it did not in any way affect colonial interests .
                   In the 1830s and 1840s, English replaced Persian as the official language in India.
Modern education was introduced with intention to -
i) create an overall climate of change and development and,
ii) generate a culture of loyalty to the rulers.

               India played a crucial role in the development of British capitalism during this stage. British
industries, especially textiles, were heavily dependent on exports. India absorbed 10 to 12 per cent of British exports and nearly 20 per cent of Britain's textile exports during 1860 to 1880. After 1850, India was also a major importer of engine coaches, rail lines and other railway stores. Moreover, Indian army played an important role in extending British colonialism in Asia and Africa. Throughout this stage Indian wealth and capital continued to be drained to Britain.

Third Stage - After 1850 third stage of colonization started in India .This was the result of several major changes in the world economy:
i)  Spread of industrialization to several countries of Europe, United States & Japan with the result that Britain's industrial supremacy in the world came to an end.
ii)  There was intensification of industrialization as a result of the application of scientific knowledge to industry. Modern chemical industries, the use of petroleum as fuel for the internal combustion engine and the use of electricity for industrial purposes developed during this period.
iii)  There was further unification of the world market because of revolution in the means of
international transport.
                   During this stage, Britain's position in the world was constantly challenged and weakened by the rival capitalistic countries. This prompted Britain to consolidate its control over India. Reactionary imperialist policies now replaced liberal imperialist policies. The strengthening of colonial rule over India was essential to keep out the rivals, to attract British capital to India and to provide it security. After 1850, a very large amount of British capital was invested in railways, loans to the Government of India, trade and to a lesser extent in plantations, coal mining, jute mills, shipping and banking in India. India also performed another important role for Britain. Its army -men & financial resources -were used by Britain to fight its rivals and for the expansion & consolidation of British empire in Africa and Asia.
                     Politically and administratively the third stage of colonialism meant renewed and more intensive control over India. It now became even more important than ever before that colonial administration should reach out to every nook and corner of India. The administration now became more bureaucratically tight,efficient and extensive than earlier. A major change now occurred in the ideology of colonialism. All talk of training the Indian people for self-government died out. Indian people were declared to be a permanently immature, a 'child' people, needing British control and trusteeship.
========================================================================
Q. Write in about ten lines the contribution of early nationalist leaders towards an understanding of colonialism.
A.  Nationalist leaders like Dadabhai Naoroji, Mahadev Gobind Ranade, Romesh Chandra Dutt were critical of the policies adopted by colonial Britain . They highlighted some of the important features of misgovernance policies in their analysis as follows -

i)  The concept of Drain of Wealth evolved in the writings of Naoroji and Dutt. To them it meant the transfer of wealth from the late 18th century in the form of plunder and loot and illicit gains by servants of the East India Company and in the form of Home charges, i.e. the expenses incurred by the Government of India in England out of its income derived mainly from the taxation of the Indian people and finally, in the form of interests and profits and capital transfer from India to England on private account. Nationalist critics pointed out how drain in these different forms impoverished this country and increased the economic gap between India and England which was the destination of
the drain of wealth.
ii)  They also pointed out how British regime brought about the destruction of the small-scale industries of India, a process that in more recent times has been called de-industrialisation.
iii)  The idea of Free Trade and laissez faire, nationalists contended, led to a tariff and industrial policy which stifled the possibilities of growth of industries in British India. Consequently, India became "the agricultural farm" of industrial England, i.e. a source of raw materials and food-grains, dependent totally on industrial supplies from England.
iv)  The rate of taxation of agriculture was also criticized by R.C. Dutt who felt that the burden of land revenue was excessive in areas which were subjected to periodical temporary settlements. This, in his opinion, was the cause of frequent recurrence of famines in British India. Wealth of the countryside was drained away through the revenue collection machinery, making the economic viability of farming so precarious that the farmer could not withstand failure of rain and other natural disasters.
v)  Finally, an important part of the nationalist analysis of British economic policy in India was their criticism of government expenditure on the army, the police and other apparatus of government. The expenditure was so excessive that developmental investments were neglected. For example, the low expenditure on irrigation works contrasted sharply with the generous expenditure on the British Indian army, the railways, etc.

Q.  What do you understand by the terms 'formal imperialism' & 'informal imperialism?
A.  'Formal imperialism', means imperialism as witnessed in India under formal political subjugation of the colony under British Imperial power.
'Informal imperialism' means where political subjugation of the colony might not have occurred but economic colonialism characterized metropolitan colonial relations (e.g. in the case of China or the Latin American countries).

Q.  On what grounds do Morris David Morris and Danial Thorner attempt to disprove the
hypothesis of de-industrialisation? Do you agree with their views?
A.  Morris debunked the de- industrialization theory and considered the data and statistics inconclusive provided by nationalists like Romesh C. Dutt and Madan Mohan Malviya. According to stats provided by the nationalists, import of Manchester cloth increased in value from 96 lakh sterling in 1860 to 27 crore sterling in 1900. Morris argue that this evidence is not decisive. He argued that under British rule the population of India increased; the per capita income increased, the sale of cloth increased due to change in consumption habits, and thus it was possible for Indians to buy more foreign cloth, leaving the market for indigenous artisans unaffected. In short, Morris's argument is that the market expanded so that it was possible to accommodate both Manchester and Indian Weaver's produce. Manchester cloth, Morris maintained, did not displace indigenous weaver's cloth.
This view of Morris is unacceptable because he does not produce any evidence to prove increase in population and per capita income during the 19th century.
                Deniel Thorner has put forward the controversial thesis that the census data available from
1881 do not suggest that de-industrialization was in progress from 1881 to 1931. At first sight, the census figures indicate that the male work-force in agriculture increased from 65% in 1881 to 72% in 1931, while the proportion in industry declined from 16% in 1881 to 9% in 1931. But Thorner believes that this categorization was erroneous and one should lump together agricultural work force with another category of general Labor and likewise industrial work-force with 'Trade'. If that is done, the picture looks different. The increase in the labor appears to be far less in the primary sector (only about 2% growth between 1881 and 1931). Similarly the decline in industry and trade put together is also much less (only about 3% decline in 1881-1931). Further, Thorner dismisses the data on female labor force on the ground that the data collected were inaccurate in the opinion of
census officials. In this way Thorner arrives at the conclusion that the 1881-1931 census
does not show any evidence of substantial de-industrialization.
                    Thorner is wrong as that the process of de-industrialization had already done the damage
well before the census operations began. Secondly data related to employment of women cannot be dismissed as done by Thorner.

Q.  Cotton Boom & international division of labor
A.  During 1860, the civil war started in USA, which was the main supplier of cotton to west . As USA was incapable of sending cotton to markets due to the civil war , it led to a massive short-fall of cotton in the world markets between 1860-64. This led to the increase in cotton prices around the world . During this time export of cotton from India, and the growth on cotton cultivating acreage in India increased immensely . This Cotton Boom brought the Indian peasants in indirect contact with world markets as supplier of raw cotton . The important export houses of Bombay, the wholesale traders in the big cities, the brokers and other middlemen in cotton export trade, down to the level of the village bania who advanced credit to the peasant for cotton cultivation, all profited enormously from the Cotton Boom. More important was the fact that the Cotton Boom established India as an
assured supplier of agricultural commodities to the industrialized West. Thus it complemented the process of de-industrialization of India. The role of the colony specializing in agriculture and of the industrialized colonialist country in the West were now demarcated clearly proving the theory of international division of labor. This was characteristic not only of India and England, but also of other colonies and industrial capitalist colonialists .