Third Part
Q. How and by which sections was the Peasantry exploited? Write in ten lines.
A. Although the trade monopoly and direct appropriation of state revenues enriched the East India Company considerably, its main source of income was now derived from the land. After entrenching itself in Bengal, it spread its power in India through wars and treaties. To extract as much money as possible it devised new systems of land settlements -Permanent, Ryotwari & Mahalwari -each more oppressive than the other.
The Permanent Settlement which was effective in Bengal Presidency and in large parts of north India. It did not recognize the hereditary rights of the peasants on land, which they had earlier enjoyed. The loyal zamindars and revenue-collectors were now given the proprietary rights on land. The cultivators were reduced to the status of simple tenants. But even the newly created landlords were not given absolute rights. Their situation was also deliberately left very precarious. They had to pay to the Company 10/11th of the entire rent derived from the cultivators and if they failed to do so, their property was sold to others. The other land settlements were no better. In all of these the peasants had to pay beyond their means & any adverse natural shifts like droughts or flood compelled them to go for loans to the money lenders who charged exorbitant interest. This made the peasants so heavily indebted that they were ultimately forced to sell their land to these money lenders. It is because of this that the money lenders were so hated in rural society. The peasantry was also oppressed by petty officials in administration who extracted money on the slightest pretexts. If the peasants went to the law court to seek redress of their grievances, they were bound to be totally ruined. When the crop was good the peasants had to pay back their past debts; if it was bad, they were further indebted. This nexus between the lower officials, law courts and money lenders created a vicious circle which made the peasantry desperate and ready to welcome any opportunity for change of regime.
Q. Write a small note, on the space given below, on the leaders of the Rebellion.
A. Bakht Khan
In Delhi Bahadur Shah was the leader. But the real power lay with the soldiers. Bakht Khan, who had led the revolt of the soldiers at Bareilly, arrived in Delhi bn 3rd July,1857. From that date on, he exercised the real authority. He formed a Court of soldiers composed of both Hindu and Muslim rebels.
Nana Saheb and Tantya Tope
At Kanpur the revolt was led by Nana Saheb, the adopted son of Peshwa Baji Rao & Tantya Tope. The rebellious sepoys also supported Nana Saheb & under his leadership both the military & civilian elements were united. They expelled the British from Kanpur and declared Nana Saheb as Peshwa who acknowledged Baliadur Shah as the Emperor of India. Most of the fighting was, however, carried on by Tantya Tope on his behalf.
The Begum of Awadh
At Lucknow the Begum of Awadh provided the leadership and proclaimed her son, Birjis Kadr, as the Nawab of Awadh. But here again, the more popular leader was Maulavi Ahmadullah of Faizabad, who organized rebellions & fought the British.
Rani Lakshmi Bai
Rani Lakshmi Bai of Jhansi was another great popular leader. She believed that she had been robbed of her ruling rights in defiance of recognized Hindu law. Though she showed some hesitation at the initial stage, she fought valiantly once she joined the ranks of the rebels.
Kunwar Singh
But the most representative and outstanding leader was Kunwar Singh of Arrah. Under his leadership the military and civil rebellion were so completely fused that the British dreaded him most.
Q. What were some of the main reasons for the defeat of such a mighty rebellion?
A. Lack of a Unified Programme and Ideology
The rebellion jolted the British government and administration in India. But the rebels did not know what to create in its place! They had no forward-looking plan in mind. This made them rely on the outmoded feudal system with Bahadur Shah at its head. The other prominent leaders of rebellion like, Nana Saheb, Begum of Awadh, Rani of Jhansi, etc., were also representatives of the old feudal world. This system had lost its vitality and was unable to withstand the onslaught of the British. It was because of the failure of these rulers, that the British had earlier been able to conquer almost the whole of India.
Lack of Unity Among Indians
There was no broad based unity among the Indian people could. While sepoys of the Bengal army were revolting, some soldiers in Panjab and south India fought on the side of the British to crush these rebellions. Similarly, there were no accompanying rebellions in most of eastern and southern India. The Sikhs also did not support the rebels. All these groups had their reasons to do so. The possibility of the revival of Mughal authority created a fear among the Sikhs who had faced so much oppression at the hands of the Mughals. Similarly, the Rajput chieftains in Rajasthan and Nizam in Hyderabad were so much harassed by the Marathas that they dreaded the revival of Maratha power. Besides this, there were some elements of the peasantry that had profited from the British rule. They supported the British during the revolt. The zamindars of Bengal Presidency were the creation of the British; and had all the reasons to support them. The same applied to the big merchants of Calcutta,
Bombay and Madras who did not go over to the rebels but supported the British.
Lack of Support from the Educated Indians
The modern educated Indians also did not support the revolt because, in their view, the revolt was backward-looking. This educated middle class was the product of the British system of education and they believed mistakenly that the British would lead the country towards modernization.
Disunity Among the Leaders
The main problem however, was lack of unity in the ranks of rebels themselves. Their
leaders were suspicious and jealous of each other & often indulged in petty quarrels. The
Begum of Awadh, for example, quarrelled with Maulavi Ahmadullah, and the Mughal princes
with the sepoy-generals.
Military Superiority of the British
Another major factor for the defeat of the rebels was the British superiority in arms. The
British imperialism, at the height of its power the world over and supported by most of the Indian princes and chiefs, proved militarily too strong for the rebels. While the rebels were lacking in discipline and a central command, the British continued to have a constant supply of disciplined soldiers, war materials and money from British. Sheer courage could not win against a powerful and determined enemy who planned its strategy skillfully.
Q. What was the impact of Rebellion on Indian society.
A. British was jolted by the revolt, some of the measures taken were -
Transfer of Power
The first major change was that the power to govern lndia passed from the East India Company to the British Crown through an Act of 1858. Now a Secretary of State for India aided by a Council was to be responsible for the governance of India. Earlier this authority was wielded by the Directors of the Company.
Changes in Military Organization
The second drastic change was effected in the army Steps were taken to prevent any further revolt by the Indian soldiers. Firstly, the number of European soldiers was increased and fixed at one European to two Indian soldiers in Bengal Army and two to five in Bombay and Madras armies. Moreover, the European troops were kept in key geographical and military positions. The crucial branches of the army like artillery were put exclusively in European hands. Secondly, the organization of the Indian section of the army was now based on the policy of "divide and rule". Regiments were created on the basis of caste, community and region to prevent the development of any nationalistic feeling among the soldiers .
Divide and Rule
This policy of "divide and rule" was also introduced in the civilian population. Since the British thought that the revolt was a conspiracy hatched by the Muslims the latter were severely punished and discrimination made against them in public appointments and in other areas. This policy was later reversed and a belated appeasement of Muslims began. This policy of preferential treatment of the Muslims was adopted towards the end of the 19th century. These policies created problems for Indian freedom struggle, and contributed to the growth of communalism.
New Policy towards the Princes
Another important change was in the British policies towards the Princely states. The earlier policy of annexation was now abandoned & the rulers of these states were now authorized to adopt heirs provided it is permitted by the British. This was done as a reward to those native rulers who had remained loyal to the British during the revolt. The policy of paramountacy was introduced. The authority of the Indian rulers over particular territories was completely subordinated to the authority of the British and they were converted into a Board of privileged dependents.
Search for New Friends
Besides these changes, the British now turned to the most reactionary groups among the Indians, like the zamindars, princes and landlords, for strengthening their fortune in the country. In fact, the revolt of 1857 brought to the surface the real reactionary nature of the British rule in India. It made most of the Indians realize that the British rule in India was essentially anti people and it was bound to be oppressive and hostile to their national interest.
Q. What were the different processes by which the jurisdiction of the Company grew.
A. The jurisdiction and control of the company grew by different processes, namely the acquisition of Zamindari rights, conquest or cession of territory and assumption of the Diwani. In 1698 the company bought the Zamindari rights of the villages of Sutanati, Calcutta and Govindpur. In 1757 the company acquired rights in the twenty-four parganas on the basis of a quit rent which was subsequently assigned to the company. In 1760 Mir Kassim ceded to the company the district of Burdwan, Chittagong and Midnapur and this was confirmed by the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam.
Q. Which was the first major Act passed by the British Parliament to regulate Indian affairs.
A. The regulating act of 1773 was the first major attempt by British Parliament to regulate Indian affairs. It constituted for the first time a supreme government, headed by a Governor General of Fort William in Bengal and four Councilors, having the supervisory authority over the presidencies of Bombay and Madras. The presidencies were forbidden to make war or peace with Indian states
without the consent of Governor General and Council, except in cases of imminent necessity and also in the cases where they had received direct orders from the court of Directors. The Act also provided for the establishment of a Supreme Court of Judicature at Calcutta. The Regulating Act recognized the right of British Parliament to directly intervene in the civil, military and revenue affairs of the company's territories in India.
Q. Write three important features of the Permanent Settlement.
A. # Zamindars became the owners of the entire land in their zamindaries and became agents of the government in collecting land revenue
# the land revenue was fixed and
# the share of the zamindar was specified
OR
1) Permanent Settlement: In 1793 Permanent Settlement for Bengal, Bihar and Orissa was introduced. Its special features were:
a) The Zamindars became the owners of the entire land in their zamindaries and became agents of the government in collecting land revenue.
b) A Zarnindar was to pay over nine-tenth of what he received from the feasting to the state, retaining a tenth as remuneration for his exertion.
c) The land revenue to be collected from Zamindar was permanently fixed by declaring Zamindars as the owners of land
Q. Write 3 main achievements and 3 disadvantages of the new judicial system.
A. The advantages of the new judicial set up were-
# The rule of law.
# Equality before law
# the growth of the professional and trained judicial hierarchy.
However, the new judicial system suffered from certain disadvantages -
In criminal cases the Europeans had separate courts and even laws. They were tried by European judges who at times gave them undue protection. In civil matters the situation was quite serious. The courts were situated at distant places. the procedures were long and time consuming. Justice was proving very expensive. Village committees and panchayats lost importance even in the village matters.
Q. Mention three important features of the Act of 1858.
A. All sections of political opinion in Britain agreed that the East lndia Company should be set aside and British Government should assume direct responsibility for the administration of India. The British crown by a proclamation in 1858 assumed the direct control of lndia.
The three important features were -
1) The dual control of the Board of control & the Directors of the company was abolished.
2) By the Act of 1858 lndia was to be governed directly by and in the name of the Crown through a Secretary of State in England. The Secretary of State was to he assisted by a Council of 15 members of whom at least 9 would have served in India for not less than ten years, & would have left India not more than ten years before their appointment to the Council.
3) The Central administration in India continued to remain in the hands of the Governor General who was given the new title of Viceroy. An executive council was formed to help the Governor General. The members of executive council were to act as the heads of departments and advisors to Governor General.
Q. How did the policy of free trade help British Industry.
A. In the nineteenth century the developing capitalist economies of Europe had erected high tariff walls. Britain was finding it difficult to get markets for its exports. The policy of free trade in India meant a ready market for its Lancashire textiles while India's export surplus helped to counter balance British deficits. Besides military and strategic advantages, this indeed was a solid advantage which the British gained from the Indian Empire.
The British rule inhibited and curbed indigeneous industry through a variety of structural constraints. The government policies actively promoted the European enterprise and discriminated against Indians. The railway network and freight rates encouraged traffic with ports as against inland centers. The organized money market was largely under the British control. The British tried to justify their policy by pointing to the remittance of capital which had been invested in railways, plantations, mines and mills, which, they proclaimed would lead to the development and modernization of India. But the establishment of railways was geared to British commercial and strategic needs, while plantations, mines and mills promoted interlocking of British financial, commercial and industrial activity and served to intensify the capitalist exploitation of the Indians by the British. The land revenue policy became interwoven with its commercial policy. The government made no worthwhile effort for a long time for the improvement of agriculture.
Q. List three important features of the reorganization of army by the British.
A. The proportion of Europeans in the army was raised. (In 1857 there were 4O000 Europeans and 215,OO Indians). In Bengal it was fixed in the ratio of I:2and in Madras and Bombay 2:5.
ii) In the important branches of army like European hold was established over negligible Indians. Later the same policy was followed about tanks and armored corps.
iii) A distinction of martial and non-martial races was made and the former were recruited in large numbers. The soldiers of Bihar, Awadh, Bengal and south India who had participated in the revolt of 1857 were declared non-martial. While the soldiers who supported the British like, Sikhs, Gurkhas and Pathans were declared martial.
iv) TO divide the soldiers belonging to different race or caste they were put in different companies.
v) Efforts were made to encourage regional loyalties among the soldiers so that they may not unite on national considerations. Thus the homogeneity of the army was broken up. Indian soldiers were used in wars of the British outside India.
Q. Write three areas where the British administration had a hostile attitude towards Indians.
A. Following -
i) Education: New education policy was introduced by the British in mid 1830. English also was encouraged , the main idea was to create a section of educated Indians who are loyal to British and also serve British in lower administrative positions . But with increasing education the educated Indians developed critical attitude towards the British rule and began organizing the national movement. This alarmed the British and they adopted a hostile attitude towards higher education.
ii) Public Services: The British spent huge amounts on army and wars. While fund allocation for health, irrigation, sanitation and public works department was meager
iii) Curbs on Press: The credit for the growth of printing press also goes to the British. But as soon as the press started playing an important role in building public opinion and growth of consciousness a number of legislations were passed to check its freedom. The Vernacular Press Act of 1878 was a serious attempt in curbing the press.
iv) Racial Discrimination: The British in the recruitment of civil and military officers and judicial matters followed a policy of discrimination against the Indians. British enjoyed all the privileges and Indians were deprived of their due right.
V) Labour Laws: With the growing plantations and factories the number of work force or laborers was rising. These laborers used to work for long hours in unhygienic and poor working conditions. Most of these organizations were owned by the British while the work force was Indian. The British made no serious attempt to provide relief for laborers. The factory Act passed in 1881 and 1891 mainly dealt with child labor and women. These could provide very little relief. While for plantations all the laws were favorable to planters almost all of whom were Europeans.
Q. How with the help of the right of Paramountcy did the British interfere in the affairs of the Princely States.
A. After the revolt of 1857 the British realized that the Princely States could play an important role in checking the discontent of Indian masses. Therefore the policy of annexation of lndian states was given up and their co-operation was sought in strengthening the British imperialism. The Princely States were asked to extend their co-operation. A number of powers were restored to them and they were assured that if they continued to be loyal to the British they would not be harmed. Through the policy of Paramountcy a close check on the states was also maintained. Now no Indian ruler was allowed to maintain relations with other countries except through the British. British interfered in day to day functioning of the states through their agents called Residents. British Residents and nominated ministers were posted in almost all the states. They were to protect British interests and implement British policies. The right to recognize the successors was also reserved with the British government. If any ruler did not fall in line he was replaced with a person of the British choice. Likewise the rulers of Baroda in 1873 and Manipur in 1891 were removed. In other states also a policy of interference was followed. In spite of these policies majority of Indian rulers supported the British to secure their status and privileges.
Q. How and by which sections was the Peasantry exploited? Write in ten lines.
A. Although the trade monopoly and direct appropriation of state revenues enriched the East India Company considerably, its main source of income was now derived from the land. After entrenching itself in Bengal, it spread its power in India through wars and treaties. To extract as much money as possible it devised new systems of land settlements -Permanent, Ryotwari & Mahalwari -each more oppressive than the other.
The Permanent Settlement which was effective in Bengal Presidency and in large parts of north India. It did not recognize the hereditary rights of the peasants on land, which they had earlier enjoyed. The loyal zamindars and revenue-collectors were now given the proprietary rights on land. The cultivators were reduced to the status of simple tenants. But even the newly created landlords were not given absolute rights. Their situation was also deliberately left very precarious. They had to pay to the Company 10/11th of the entire rent derived from the cultivators and if they failed to do so, their property was sold to others. The other land settlements were no better. In all of these the peasants had to pay beyond their means & any adverse natural shifts like droughts or flood compelled them to go for loans to the money lenders who charged exorbitant interest. This made the peasants so heavily indebted that they were ultimately forced to sell their land to these money lenders. It is because of this that the money lenders were so hated in rural society. The peasantry was also oppressed by petty officials in administration who extracted money on the slightest pretexts. If the peasants went to the law court to seek redress of their grievances, they were bound to be totally ruined. When the crop was good the peasants had to pay back their past debts; if it was bad, they were further indebted. This nexus between the lower officials, law courts and money lenders created a vicious circle which made the peasantry desperate and ready to welcome any opportunity for change of regime.
Q. Write a small note, on the space given below, on the leaders of the Rebellion.
A. Bakht Khan
In Delhi Bahadur Shah was the leader. But the real power lay with the soldiers. Bakht Khan, who had led the revolt of the soldiers at Bareilly, arrived in Delhi bn 3rd July,1857. From that date on, he exercised the real authority. He formed a Court of soldiers composed of both Hindu and Muslim rebels.
Nana Saheb and Tantya Tope
At Kanpur the revolt was led by Nana Saheb, the adopted son of Peshwa Baji Rao & Tantya Tope. The rebellious sepoys also supported Nana Saheb & under his leadership both the military & civilian elements were united. They expelled the British from Kanpur and declared Nana Saheb as Peshwa who acknowledged Baliadur Shah as the Emperor of India. Most of the fighting was, however, carried on by Tantya Tope on his behalf.
The Begum of Awadh
At Lucknow the Begum of Awadh provided the leadership and proclaimed her son, Birjis Kadr, as the Nawab of Awadh. But here again, the more popular leader was Maulavi Ahmadullah of Faizabad, who organized rebellions & fought the British.
Rani Lakshmi Bai
Rani Lakshmi Bai of Jhansi was another great popular leader. She believed that she had been robbed of her ruling rights in defiance of recognized Hindu law. Though she showed some hesitation at the initial stage, she fought valiantly once she joined the ranks of the rebels.
Kunwar Singh
But the most representative and outstanding leader was Kunwar Singh of Arrah. Under his leadership the military and civil rebellion were so completely fused that the British dreaded him most.
Q. What were some of the main reasons for the defeat of such a mighty rebellion?
A. Lack of a Unified Programme and Ideology
The rebellion jolted the British government and administration in India. But the rebels did not know what to create in its place! They had no forward-looking plan in mind. This made them rely on the outmoded feudal system with Bahadur Shah at its head. The other prominent leaders of rebellion like, Nana Saheb, Begum of Awadh, Rani of Jhansi, etc., were also representatives of the old feudal world. This system had lost its vitality and was unable to withstand the onslaught of the British. It was because of the failure of these rulers, that the British had earlier been able to conquer almost the whole of India.
Lack of Unity Among Indians
There was no broad based unity among the Indian people could. While sepoys of the Bengal army were revolting, some soldiers in Panjab and south India fought on the side of the British to crush these rebellions. Similarly, there were no accompanying rebellions in most of eastern and southern India. The Sikhs also did not support the rebels. All these groups had their reasons to do so. The possibility of the revival of Mughal authority created a fear among the Sikhs who had faced so much oppression at the hands of the Mughals. Similarly, the Rajput chieftains in Rajasthan and Nizam in Hyderabad were so much harassed by the Marathas that they dreaded the revival of Maratha power. Besides this, there were some elements of the peasantry that had profited from the British rule. They supported the British during the revolt. The zamindars of Bengal Presidency were the creation of the British; and had all the reasons to support them. The same applied to the big merchants of Calcutta,
Bombay and Madras who did not go over to the rebels but supported the British.
Lack of Support from the Educated Indians
The modern educated Indians also did not support the revolt because, in their view, the revolt was backward-looking. This educated middle class was the product of the British system of education and they believed mistakenly that the British would lead the country towards modernization.
Disunity Among the Leaders
The main problem however, was lack of unity in the ranks of rebels themselves. Their
leaders were suspicious and jealous of each other & often indulged in petty quarrels. The
Begum of Awadh, for example, quarrelled with Maulavi Ahmadullah, and the Mughal princes
with the sepoy-generals.
Military Superiority of the British
Another major factor for the defeat of the rebels was the British superiority in arms. The
British imperialism, at the height of its power the world over and supported by most of the Indian princes and chiefs, proved militarily too strong for the rebels. While the rebels were lacking in discipline and a central command, the British continued to have a constant supply of disciplined soldiers, war materials and money from British. Sheer courage could not win against a powerful and determined enemy who planned its strategy skillfully.
Q. What was the impact of Rebellion on Indian society.
A. British was jolted by the revolt, some of the measures taken were -
Transfer of Power
The first major change was that the power to govern lndia passed from the East India Company to the British Crown through an Act of 1858. Now a Secretary of State for India aided by a Council was to be responsible for the governance of India. Earlier this authority was wielded by the Directors of the Company.
Changes in Military Organization
The second drastic change was effected in the army Steps were taken to prevent any further revolt by the Indian soldiers. Firstly, the number of European soldiers was increased and fixed at one European to two Indian soldiers in Bengal Army and two to five in Bombay and Madras armies. Moreover, the European troops were kept in key geographical and military positions. The crucial branches of the army like artillery were put exclusively in European hands. Secondly, the organization of the Indian section of the army was now based on the policy of "divide and rule". Regiments were created on the basis of caste, community and region to prevent the development of any nationalistic feeling among the soldiers .
Divide and Rule
This policy of "divide and rule" was also introduced in the civilian population. Since the British thought that the revolt was a conspiracy hatched by the Muslims the latter were severely punished and discrimination made against them in public appointments and in other areas. This policy was later reversed and a belated appeasement of Muslims began. This policy of preferential treatment of the Muslims was adopted towards the end of the 19th century. These policies created problems for Indian freedom struggle, and contributed to the growth of communalism.
New Policy towards the Princes
Another important change was in the British policies towards the Princely states. The earlier policy of annexation was now abandoned & the rulers of these states were now authorized to adopt heirs provided it is permitted by the British. This was done as a reward to those native rulers who had remained loyal to the British during the revolt. The policy of paramountacy was introduced. The authority of the Indian rulers over particular territories was completely subordinated to the authority of the British and they were converted into a Board of privileged dependents.
Search for New Friends
Besides these changes, the British now turned to the most reactionary groups among the Indians, like the zamindars, princes and landlords, for strengthening their fortune in the country. In fact, the revolt of 1857 brought to the surface the real reactionary nature of the British rule in India. It made most of the Indians realize that the British rule in India was essentially anti people and it was bound to be oppressive and hostile to their national interest.
Q. What were the different processes by which the jurisdiction of the Company grew.
A. The jurisdiction and control of the company grew by different processes, namely the acquisition of Zamindari rights, conquest or cession of territory and assumption of the Diwani. In 1698 the company bought the Zamindari rights of the villages of Sutanati, Calcutta and Govindpur. In 1757 the company acquired rights in the twenty-four parganas on the basis of a quit rent which was subsequently assigned to the company. In 1760 Mir Kassim ceded to the company the district of Burdwan, Chittagong and Midnapur and this was confirmed by the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam.
Q. Which was the first major Act passed by the British Parliament to regulate Indian affairs.
A. The regulating act of 1773 was the first major attempt by British Parliament to regulate Indian affairs. It constituted for the first time a supreme government, headed by a Governor General of Fort William in Bengal and four Councilors, having the supervisory authority over the presidencies of Bombay and Madras. The presidencies were forbidden to make war or peace with Indian states
without the consent of Governor General and Council, except in cases of imminent necessity and also in the cases where they had received direct orders from the court of Directors. The Act also provided for the establishment of a Supreme Court of Judicature at Calcutta. The Regulating Act recognized the right of British Parliament to directly intervene in the civil, military and revenue affairs of the company's territories in India.
Q. Write three important features of the Permanent Settlement.
A. # Zamindars became the owners of the entire land in their zamindaries and became agents of the government in collecting land revenue
# the land revenue was fixed and
# the share of the zamindar was specified
OR
1) Permanent Settlement: In 1793 Permanent Settlement for Bengal, Bihar and Orissa was introduced. Its special features were:
a) The Zamindars became the owners of the entire land in their zamindaries and became agents of the government in collecting land revenue.
b) A Zarnindar was to pay over nine-tenth of what he received from the feasting to the state, retaining a tenth as remuneration for his exertion.
c) The land revenue to be collected from Zamindar was permanently fixed by declaring Zamindars as the owners of land
Q. Write 3 main achievements and 3 disadvantages of the new judicial system.
A. The advantages of the new judicial set up were-
# The rule of law.
# Equality before law
# the growth of the professional and trained judicial hierarchy.
However, the new judicial system suffered from certain disadvantages -
In criminal cases the Europeans had separate courts and even laws. They were tried by European judges who at times gave them undue protection. In civil matters the situation was quite serious. The courts were situated at distant places. the procedures were long and time consuming. Justice was proving very expensive. Village committees and panchayats lost importance even in the village matters.
Q. Mention three important features of the Act of 1858.
A. All sections of political opinion in Britain agreed that the East lndia Company should be set aside and British Government should assume direct responsibility for the administration of India. The British crown by a proclamation in 1858 assumed the direct control of lndia.
The three important features were -
1) The dual control of the Board of control & the Directors of the company was abolished.
2) By the Act of 1858 lndia was to be governed directly by and in the name of the Crown through a Secretary of State in England. The Secretary of State was to he assisted by a Council of 15 members of whom at least 9 would have served in India for not less than ten years, & would have left India not more than ten years before their appointment to the Council.
3) The Central administration in India continued to remain in the hands of the Governor General who was given the new title of Viceroy. An executive council was formed to help the Governor General. The members of executive council were to act as the heads of departments and advisors to Governor General.
Q. How did the policy of free trade help British Industry.
A. In the nineteenth century the developing capitalist economies of Europe had erected high tariff walls. Britain was finding it difficult to get markets for its exports. The policy of free trade in India meant a ready market for its Lancashire textiles while India's export surplus helped to counter balance British deficits. Besides military and strategic advantages, this indeed was a solid advantage which the British gained from the Indian Empire.
The British rule inhibited and curbed indigeneous industry through a variety of structural constraints. The government policies actively promoted the European enterprise and discriminated against Indians. The railway network and freight rates encouraged traffic with ports as against inland centers. The organized money market was largely under the British control. The British tried to justify their policy by pointing to the remittance of capital which had been invested in railways, plantations, mines and mills, which, they proclaimed would lead to the development and modernization of India. But the establishment of railways was geared to British commercial and strategic needs, while plantations, mines and mills promoted interlocking of British financial, commercial and industrial activity and served to intensify the capitalist exploitation of the Indians by the British. The land revenue policy became interwoven with its commercial policy. The government made no worthwhile effort for a long time for the improvement of agriculture.
Q. List three important features of the reorganization of army by the British.
A. The proportion of Europeans in the army was raised. (In 1857 there were 4O000 Europeans and 215,OO Indians). In Bengal it was fixed in the ratio of I:2and in Madras and Bombay 2:5.
ii) In the important branches of army like European hold was established over negligible Indians. Later the same policy was followed about tanks and armored corps.
iii) A distinction of martial and non-martial races was made and the former were recruited in large numbers. The soldiers of Bihar, Awadh, Bengal and south India who had participated in the revolt of 1857 were declared non-martial. While the soldiers who supported the British like, Sikhs, Gurkhas and Pathans were declared martial.
iv) TO divide the soldiers belonging to different race or caste they were put in different companies.
v) Efforts were made to encourage regional loyalties among the soldiers so that they may not unite on national considerations. Thus the homogeneity of the army was broken up. Indian soldiers were used in wars of the British outside India.
Q. Write three areas where the British administration had a hostile attitude towards Indians.
A. Following -
i) Education: New education policy was introduced by the British in mid 1830. English also was encouraged , the main idea was to create a section of educated Indians who are loyal to British and also serve British in lower administrative positions . But with increasing education the educated Indians developed critical attitude towards the British rule and began organizing the national movement. This alarmed the British and they adopted a hostile attitude towards higher education.
ii) Public Services: The British spent huge amounts on army and wars. While fund allocation for health, irrigation, sanitation and public works department was meager
iii) Curbs on Press: The credit for the growth of printing press also goes to the British. But as soon as the press started playing an important role in building public opinion and growth of consciousness a number of legislations were passed to check its freedom. The Vernacular Press Act of 1878 was a serious attempt in curbing the press.
iv) Racial Discrimination: The British in the recruitment of civil and military officers and judicial matters followed a policy of discrimination against the Indians. British enjoyed all the privileges and Indians were deprived of their due right.
V) Labour Laws: With the growing plantations and factories the number of work force or laborers was rising. These laborers used to work for long hours in unhygienic and poor working conditions. Most of these organizations were owned by the British while the work force was Indian. The British made no serious attempt to provide relief for laborers. The factory Act passed in 1881 and 1891 mainly dealt with child labor and women. These could provide very little relief. While for plantations all the laws were favorable to planters almost all of whom were Europeans.
Q. How with the help of the right of Paramountcy did the British interfere in the affairs of the Princely States.
A. After the revolt of 1857 the British realized that the Princely States could play an important role in checking the discontent of Indian masses. Therefore the policy of annexation of lndian states was given up and their co-operation was sought in strengthening the British imperialism. The Princely States were asked to extend their co-operation. A number of powers were restored to them and they were assured that if they continued to be loyal to the British they would not be harmed. Through the policy of Paramountcy a close check on the states was also maintained. Now no Indian ruler was allowed to maintain relations with other countries except through the British. British interfered in day to day functioning of the states through their agents called Residents. British Residents and nominated ministers were posted in almost all the states. They were to protect British interests and implement British policies. The right to recognize the successors was also reserved with the British government. If any ruler did not fall in line he was replaced with a person of the British choice. Likewise the rulers of Baroda in 1873 and Manipur in 1891 were removed. In other states also a policy of interference was followed. In spite of these policies majority of Indian rulers supported the British to secure their status and privileges.
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