Sixth Part
The Bronze Age - After stone age came Bronze Age. It came around 5000 years ago or 3000
BC. This period supported an urban population, skilled craftsmen, traders, priests, and writers. Now the principal metals were used for making tools and weapons, this period is described as the Bronze Age. By 3000 B.C. not only was the technique of mixing copper and tin to make bronze known in India, Mesopotamia and Greece, but the wheel also had been discovered. The application of the wheel (with copper nails) revolutionized transportation and two-wheeled and four-wheeled carts were being commonly used by this time for a variety of purposes. By this time wind too was being used as a source of energy primarily to aid water transportation. We find sail boats being used from Polynesia to Egypt. The ruins of Mohenjodaro and Harappa tell us of the application of kiln-fired bricks which
meant a huge expenditure of fuel and the ability of the artisans to control high temperature. In the Bronze Age, there are evidences to suggest that land was systematically reclaimed from swamp and desert and record quantities of food stuffs were being produced Artificial waterways also helped to protect society against the vagaries of the weather.
The Iron Age - Iron Age started at around 1200 B.C. Unlike copper and tin which are quite rare and hence expensive, iron was easily available on earth's crust . In the period of the Bronze Age technology, large empires had emerged in Greece, Asia Minor, Mesopotamia and Egypt etc. The invention of iron tools and weapons by the barbarians of Eurasia posed a major threat to these empires. Iron was used in India around 1000 B.C. and excavations show that iron weapons such as arrow heads, spearheads were used commonly in Western Uttar Pradesh from about 800 B.C. In the words of Gordon Childe, "Cheap iron democratized agriculture and industry and warfare too. Any peasant could afford an iron axe to clear fresh land for himself and iron ploughs where with to break up stony ground". In the past the superior tools and weapons were rare and expensive. The discovery of iron leveled these differences.
Rise of Nation States -
The process of political development and formation of Nation states started during the Renaissance period . It all began with the development of national consciousness among people living in defined territory , the feeling that they are different from others . The rise of vernacular languages aided or helped to spread this feeling . It led to the emergence of two monarchies British and France .
The Kings tried to establish their supremacy over the feudal lords and the conflicts between the two lasted over a long period of time. The Kings were helped in their designs by merchants and other urban population. The rise of trade and the middle class in cities had taken place already. To free themselves from interference by feudal lords and to further promote their interests, the cities needed a strong central authority which the kings, by curbing the power of the feudal lords, were trying to establish. The interests of the merchants , middle class could be promoted by strong kings who would put an end to the feudal anarchy and local disorders, remove restriction on trade, build roads, and canals, and enforce law and order. They could, thus, facilitate trade by protecting traders in their countries by removing the competition of merchants from other countries, and support
them with their armed power against their rivals. Thus sense of oneness started due to use of vernacular languages , growth of central authority I.e king.
Geographical discovery and Colonization
After the formation of Nation states , the zeal to explore world started .The vast Atlantic Ocean was never crossed or chartered by Europeans. The first great steps to explore the world was taken by the sailors under the patronage of Spanish and Portuguese rulers . The motive was to find sea route to East and get a share of lucrative trade from East which was till then controlled by Italians. Navigational tools like compass, astronomical tables, art of mapping etc. helped the sailors .
Columbus in 1492 discovered Americas while looking for sea route to India. In 1498, Vasco Da Gama discovered India finally . By the late 15th century almost the whole world came geographically in contact with each other .
The new geographical discoveries had consequences for the entire world. The discovery of the sea-route to India led to the end of Italian control & the establishment of the Portuguese monopoly over trade . The Portuguese monopoly was subjugated by the British, the Dutch and the French. There was a tremendous increase in the volume of trade as well as in the articles of trade. It also marked the beginning of the colonization of Asia, which in the following centuries was almost entirely subjugated by the European countries.
Similarly in Africa , colonization took place only in coastal areas but by 19th century large scale colonization of African continent took place . In America, colonization led to the destruction of the civilizations . Civilization of Incas & Aztec , the indigenous population of America were destroyed by European colonialists . The Europeans plundered the gold and silver of the Incas and the Aztecs and exploited the mines in Peru, Mexico and Bolivia for precious metals. Vast supplies of gold and silver reached Europe.
Africa was similarly plundered for precious metals and for supply of slaves that were required in plantation . Plantation was introduced in Brazil , West Indies and North America for growing tobacco ,sugarcane, cotton etc. Thus , geographical discoveries were synonymous with colonization .
Drain Theory -
According to Nationalists , a significant amount of India’s wealth was exported to Britain without any benefits for India . In other words India was made to pay tribute to Britain indirectly. Salaries to British officers who were posted in India , home charges and profits made on British capital invested in India benefited Britain while sucking India dry of resources .
After the Battle of Plassey in 1757 British company took control of Bengal , according to estimates wealth drain from Bengal to Britain East India Company constituted 5 to 6 % of its
net Gross . The surplus generated on investments were also siphoned off to Britain while
India remained undeveloped. Exploitation of Indian resources continued through other methods like over taxation, unfavorable trade etc. After gaining the Dewani rights for Bengal , Bihar and Orissa in 1765 , the land revenues were remitted back to Britain.
De-industrialization -
India was a cotton goods exporter when British came to India , gradually it became a cotton goods importer once it came under the British control . Under British rule , artisans , craftsmen and trading centers collapsed . The manufacturing sector collapsed too due to policies adopted by British colonialists . India thus became a net importer of cotton goods almost exclusively from Britain . Indian imports according to estimates were 40% of British exports .
Thus industrialization of Britain was caused by de-industrialization of Indian manufacturing .
The de-industrialization of India led to the steady decline of population employed in indigenous industries and migration of these workers into agriculture sector which was thus over burdened .
Q. What were the reasons for national consciousness.
A. 1. Printing press
2. Better communication
3. New system of education
4. Racist attitude of British
5. Better Transportation
NON-COOPERATION AND KHILAFAT MOVEMENTS -
During the First world war, inflation was skyrocketing with all essential commodities out of reach of common Indians. The colonial government on its part imposed taxes to help the war efforts . This led to lot of resentment among people another reason was the forceful induction of young men in army to fight war. People were agitated and demonstration were held against the British. To quell the protest , Rowlatt act was passed in 1919, under this any person can be arrested without warrant for 2 years .
There were massive protests and demonstrations led by Gandhi ji who gave the call of satyagraha I.e peaceful demonstration against the act. During this Jallianwala Bagh massacre occurred in Punjab which further enraged the people across the country .
Around the same time, the Indian Muslims were aroused because the Sultan of Turkey was deposed by the British. The Indian Muslims regarded the Turkish Sultan as their Khalifa and they started the Khilafat movement for the restoration of Khalifa in Turkey. Mohammed Ali and Shaukat Ali were the leaders of the movement.To strengthen the Hindu -Muslim unity, Gandhi and Ali brothers launched a united campaign in 1921 called Non-cooperation movement . The Indian people were asked to boycott foreign goods and adopt Swadeshi, to boycott government school;, colleges and courts and councils, to adopt national schools, arbitration courts and Khadi. The program also included resignation from government services, non-payment of taxes, removal of untouchability and promotion of Hindu-Muslim unity.
The movement started at an unprecedented level. Thousands of students left schools and colleges, hundreds of lawyers and many government servants left their jobs, most of the people refused to vote in the elections to the legislatures, the boycott of foreign cloth assumed massive proportions, thousands were involved in the picketing of the shops selling foreign cloth and liquor and in many places,peasants and workers were also involved along with students, middle classes and women. Its influence was even more far-reaching. Millions of peasants and urban poor became familiar with the ideology of nationalism. Most sections of the Indian population became politicized and women were drawn to the movement. An anti imperialist feeling spread to wide areas of the country and the movement imbued the Indian people with self-confidence and self-esteem.
On 5 February 1922, in Chauri-Chaura, a crowd of peasants burnt the police station killing 22 policemen in retaliation to the police firing. Gandhi condemned this incident and withdrew the movement.
Civil Disobedience Movement -
The Simon Commission on 8 November 1927 raised the political temperature of India . This
Commission was constituted to explore the possibility for further constitutional progress in India, but there was not even a single Indian in it. This meant that the British government did not have any faith in the ability of the Indians. This was considered as an insult to the Indians and it was decided to boycott the proceedings of the Commission. The Congress further decided to protest against it. Strikes and demonstrations were held wherever the Commission went. This movement galvanised the country and stirred the youth and created the ground for a new &-India movement.
The Bronze Age - After stone age came Bronze Age. It came around 5000 years ago or 3000
BC. This period supported an urban population, skilled craftsmen, traders, priests, and writers. Now the principal metals were used for making tools and weapons, this period is described as the Bronze Age. By 3000 B.C. not only was the technique of mixing copper and tin to make bronze known in India, Mesopotamia and Greece, but the wheel also had been discovered. The application of the wheel (with copper nails) revolutionized transportation and two-wheeled and four-wheeled carts were being commonly used by this time for a variety of purposes. By this time wind too was being used as a source of energy primarily to aid water transportation. We find sail boats being used from Polynesia to Egypt. The ruins of Mohenjodaro and Harappa tell us of the application of kiln-fired bricks which
meant a huge expenditure of fuel and the ability of the artisans to control high temperature. In the Bronze Age, there are evidences to suggest that land was systematically reclaimed from swamp and desert and record quantities of food stuffs were being produced Artificial waterways also helped to protect society against the vagaries of the weather.
The Iron Age - Iron Age started at around 1200 B.C. Unlike copper and tin which are quite rare and hence expensive, iron was easily available on earth's crust . In the period of the Bronze Age technology, large empires had emerged in Greece, Asia Minor, Mesopotamia and Egypt etc. The invention of iron tools and weapons by the barbarians of Eurasia posed a major threat to these empires. Iron was used in India around 1000 B.C. and excavations show that iron weapons such as arrow heads, spearheads were used commonly in Western Uttar Pradesh from about 800 B.C. In the words of Gordon Childe, "Cheap iron democratized agriculture and industry and warfare too. Any peasant could afford an iron axe to clear fresh land for himself and iron ploughs where with to break up stony ground". In the past the superior tools and weapons were rare and expensive. The discovery of iron leveled these differences.
Rise of Nation States -
The process of political development and formation of Nation states started during the Renaissance period . It all began with the development of national consciousness among people living in defined territory , the feeling that they are different from others . The rise of vernacular languages aided or helped to spread this feeling . It led to the emergence of two monarchies British and France .
The Kings tried to establish their supremacy over the feudal lords and the conflicts between the two lasted over a long period of time. The Kings were helped in their designs by merchants and other urban population. The rise of trade and the middle class in cities had taken place already. To free themselves from interference by feudal lords and to further promote their interests, the cities needed a strong central authority which the kings, by curbing the power of the feudal lords, were trying to establish. The interests of the merchants , middle class could be promoted by strong kings who would put an end to the feudal anarchy and local disorders, remove restriction on trade, build roads, and canals, and enforce law and order. They could, thus, facilitate trade by protecting traders in their countries by removing the competition of merchants from other countries, and support
them with their armed power against their rivals. Thus sense of oneness started due to use of vernacular languages , growth of central authority I.e king.
Geographical discovery and Colonization
After the formation of Nation states , the zeal to explore world started .The vast Atlantic Ocean was never crossed or chartered by Europeans. The first great steps to explore the world was taken by the sailors under the patronage of Spanish and Portuguese rulers . The motive was to find sea route to East and get a share of lucrative trade from East which was till then controlled by Italians. Navigational tools like compass, astronomical tables, art of mapping etc. helped the sailors .
Columbus in 1492 discovered Americas while looking for sea route to India. In 1498, Vasco Da Gama discovered India finally . By the late 15th century almost the whole world came geographically in contact with each other .
The new geographical discoveries had consequences for the entire world. The discovery of the sea-route to India led to the end of Italian control & the establishment of the Portuguese monopoly over trade . The Portuguese monopoly was subjugated by the British, the Dutch and the French. There was a tremendous increase in the volume of trade as well as in the articles of trade. It also marked the beginning of the colonization of Asia, which in the following centuries was almost entirely subjugated by the European countries.
Similarly in Africa , colonization took place only in coastal areas but by 19th century large scale colonization of African continent took place . In America, colonization led to the destruction of the civilizations . Civilization of Incas & Aztec , the indigenous population of America were destroyed by European colonialists . The Europeans plundered the gold and silver of the Incas and the Aztecs and exploited the mines in Peru, Mexico and Bolivia for precious metals. Vast supplies of gold and silver reached Europe.
Africa was similarly plundered for precious metals and for supply of slaves that were required in plantation . Plantation was introduced in Brazil , West Indies and North America for growing tobacco ,sugarcane, cotton etc. Thus , geographical discoveries were synonymous with colonization .
Drain Theory -
According to Nationalists , a significant amount of India’s wealth was exported to Britain without any benefits for India . In other words India was made to pay tribute to Britain indirectly. Salaries to British officers who were posted in India , home charges and profits made on British capital invested in India benefited Britain while sucking India dry of resources .
After the Battle of Plassey in 1757 British company took control of Bengal , according to estimates wealth drain from Bengal to Britain East India Company constituted 5 to 6 % of its
net Gross . The surplus generated on investments were also siphoned off to Britain while
India remained undeveloped. Exploitation of Indian resources continued through other methods like over taxation, unfavorable trade etc. After gaining the Dewani rights for Bengal , Bihar and Orissa in 1765 , the land revenues were remitted back to Britain.
De-industrialization -
India was a cotton goods exporter when British came to India , gradually it became a cotton goods importer once it came under the British control . Under British rule , artisans , craftsmen and trading centers collapsed . The manufacturing sector collapsed too due to policies adopted by British colonialists . India thus became a net importer of cotton goods almost exclusively from Britain . Indian imports according to estimates were 40% of British exports .
Thus industrialization of Britain was caused by de-industrialization of Indian manufacturing .
The de-industrialization of India led to the steady decline of population employed in indigenous industries and migration of these workers into agriculture sector which was thus over burdened .
Q. What were the reasons for national consciousness.
A. 1. Printing press
2. Better communication
3. New system of education
4. Racist attitude of British
5. Better Transportation
NON-COOPERATION AND KHILAFAT MOVEMENTS -
During the First world war, inflation was skyrocketing with all essential commodities out of reach of common Indians. The colonial government on its part imposed taxes to help the war efforts . This led to lot of resentment among people another reason was the forceful induction of young men in army to fight war. People were agitated and demonstration were held against the British. To quell the protest , Rowlatt act was passed in 1919, under this any person can be arrested without warrant for 2 years .
There were massive protests and demonstrations led by Gandhi ji who gave the call of satyagraha I.e peaceful demonstration against the act. During this Jallianwala Bagh massacre occurred in Punjab which further enraged the people across the country .
Around the same time, the Indian Muslims were aroused because the Sultan of Turkey was deposed by the British. The Indian Muslims regarded the Turkish Sultan as their Khalifa and they started the Khilafat movement for the restoration of Khalifa in Turkey. Mohammed Ali and Shaukat Ali were the leaders of the movement.To strengthen the Hindu -Muslim unity, Gandhi and Ali brothers launched a united campaign in 1921 called Non-cooperation movement . The Indian people were asked to boycott foreign goods and adopt Swadeshi, to boycott government school;, colleges and courts and councils, to adopt national schools, arbitration courts and Khadi. The program also included resignation from government services, non-payment of taxes, removal of untouchability and promotion of Hindu-Muslim unity.
The movement started at an unprecedented level. Thousands of students left schools and colleges, hundreds of lawyers and many government servants left their jobs, most of the people refused to vote in the elections to the legislatures, the boycott of foreign cloth assumed massive proportions, thousands were involved in the picketing of the shops selling foreign cloth and liquor and in many places,peasants and workers were also involved along with students, middle classes and women. Its influence was even more far-reaching. Millions of peasants and urban poor became familiar with the ideology of nationalism. Most sections of the Indian population became politicized and women were drawn to the movement. An anti imperialist feeling spread to wide areas of the country and the movement imbued the Indian people with self-confidence and self-esteem.
On 5 February 1922, in Chauri-Chaura, a crowd of peasants burnt the police station killing 22 policemen in retaliation to the police firing. Gandhi condemned this incident and withdrew the movement.
Civil Disobedience Movement -
The Simon Commission on 8 November 1927 raised the political temperature of India . This
Commission was constituted to explore the possibility for further constitutional progress in India, but there was not even a single Indian in it. This meant that the British government did not have any faith in the ability of the Indians. This was considered as an insult to the Indians and it was decided to boycott the proceedings of the Commission. The Congress further decided to protest against it. Strikes and demonstrations were held wherever the Commission went. This movement galvanised the country and stirred the youth and created the ground for a new &-India movement.
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