Ninth Part
Q. Discuss the background against which the Indian Councils Act of 1892 was passed.
A. From the point of view of the Govt. the Act of 1861 was working satisfactorily. But the period which followed saw a remarkable growth of national consciousness in India. Although there wasn’t any challenge emanating to the grip of government still a feeling was rapidly developing that the people inhabiting the country had common interests, aspirations and destiny. Lord Dufferin was the Governor-General when the Indian National Congress was founded. During his tenure the Government of India vigorously pursued with the Govt. at London the question of enlarging the size and functions of the Central and provincial Legislative Councils.
The demand of these nationalist leaders was that India should be ruled in the interest of Indian people. On the other hand, the primary objective of the Government of lndia was to safeguard and further British imperial interests. In this situation, the British needed to enlarge the basis for their support in India & they could do this by satisfying the aspirations of those Indians who were ready to confine their demands within a narrow constitutional framework. By introducing changes in the constitutional structure dissatisfaction of educated Indians could be obviated without adversely affecting Government's all-embracing autocracy. It was with this objective that a new Indian Councils Act was passed in 1892.
Q. What were the main provisions of the Act of 1892?
A. The Indian Councils Act of 1892 was an amending Act while the basic constitutional provisions remained the same as under the Act of 1861, but two types of changes were introduced:
i ) Changes in the composition of legislative bodies
ii) Enlargement of functions
The number of Additional Members of the Central Executive CounciI was increased to not less than ten nor more than sixteen of whom, as under the Act of 1861, not less than half were to be non-officials. Under the Regulations finally adopted, the Central Legislative Council was to consist of nine ex-officio members (the Governor-General, six members of the Executive Council, the Commander-in-Chief and the head of the province ie which the Council met, i.e. Lieutenant Governor of Bengal or Punjab),,six official Additional Members and ten nonofficial members of the Legislative Councils of Bengal, Bombay, Madras and the North-Western Province. The official members together with the ex-officio members constituted an official majority.
So far as the functions were concerned, besides discussing legislative proposals, the members were allowed to discuss the annual Financial Statement presented by the Govt. However, the Financial Statement was presented as an unalterable document. Members could only present their.observations which could have influence on the budget in subsequent years, not on the budget of the year under consideration. In the case of provinces the discussion was limited to those branches of revenue and expenditure which were under the control of Provincial Governments. The members were also allowed to put questions on internal matters. Supplementary questions were not allowed. In spite of this limitation it was a significant innovation because even in the British House of Commons
till that time Question Hour had not fully evolved.
Q. What were the two aims of the Government in introducing the so-called Constitutional Reforms of 1909?
A. The two aims of the government were -
i) to strengthen the Raj by rallying the moderates to the empire
ii) to encourage divisions amongst politically active Hindus and Muslims
It soon became obvious that the Government of India was not able to achieve either of these objectives. Initially the Moderate leaders were satisfied and set themselves to work enthusiastically. Earlier they had captured the Congress at Surat in 1907 yet the fact remains that within the Congress their role became steadily less important. After the pact between the Moderates and the Extremists in 1916, the Moderates steadily moved to the fringes of the freedom struggle and ceased to play a central role.
The Government also did not succeed in keeping the politically active Hindus and Muslims
Apart on national issues , thus eroding the moral right of Alien government to continue. Both the communities tend to vote together on national issues like fiscal autonomy for India, state control of railways, abolition of cotton excise duties, demand for more expenditure on education etc.
Q. Discuss the circumstances leading to the Morley-Minto 'Reforms'?
A. Above answer
Q. What were the main features of the Morley-Minto 'Reforms?
A. Like the earlier lndian Council Act of 1892, the Act of 1909(Morley-Minto) was also an amending Act. Like its predecessor, it also introduced changes in the size and functions of the Councils of the Governor-General and Governors for the purpose of making Laws and Regulations.
1) This Act increased the strength of the Central as well as Provincial Councils. The number of additional members in the Central Council was increased to sixty while the number of additional members in Provincial Councils was to be between thirty and fifty. This number does not include the ex officio members. The additional members were to be of two kinds-official & nod-official. At the Center, the official members(including ex-oficio members) were to be in a majority. In the provincial legislatures non-official majorities were conceded. This was done because of the understanding that the non-official members would represent such diverse interests and classes that it would be difficult for them to take a joint stand. Moreover, if the eventuality of their passing an undesirable bill did come UR, these bills could conveniently be vetoed.
2) The system of separate electorate for Muslims was introduced in 1909 act. The aim of the Government in giving preferential treatment to the Muslims was not to correct imbalances in Indian society but to bind some Muslim leaders to the Government with 'silken chains of gratitude’. Muslims were to be elected by separate electorates the electorates consisting of Muslims only. Separate registers were prepared containing the names of Muslim voters only. Muslims were also given weightage i.e. more seats were given to them than the number warranted by their proportion in the local population. They were also given the right to compete on equal terms with the other communities in the general electorates.The whole idea behind this move was to create a wedge between two communities .
Q. What prompted the government to make the Declaration in August 1917?
A. There were certain reasons that prompted the government to make the declaration in August 1917.
1) By 1916 all parties in India as well as Britain began to think that some changes in the structure of the Government of India were necessary. This was largely the result of the conditions produced by the outbreak of the World War in August, 1914. The war did not pose any immediate threat to India. But being part of the British Empire, India became automatically involved. Thereafter, India made ungrudging contribution to the war effort and supplied manpower, money and material. Because of the help given on a crucial occasion, expectations of Indians increased. It was not that they wanted reward for having served the rulers. Actually fighting shoulder to shoulder with European soldiers had given new self-confidence to the Indians. They wanted a recognition of their ability to rule
themselves. This aspiration was reinforced by the ideas generated during the war.
2) After the Morley-Minto Reforms, Muslims did not become supporters of the Government. In fact the gulf between the Muslims and the government become steadily wider. Many factors were responsible for this. In December, 191 1 Partition of Bengal was revoked. This step alienated the Muslim political elite. In 1912 Lord Harding's government rejected the proposal relating to the establishment of the University of Aligarh. In 1913 there were riots in Kanpur when a platform adjoining a mosque was demolished. Outside India Britain had refused to help Turkey in Italian and Balkan Wars (191 1-13). Gradually the Muslim League accepted the goal of self-government for India. The Muslim League decided to enter into negotiations with the Congress to formulate a scheme for the future Government of India.
3) Around the same time Mrs. Annie Besant, who till then had confined her activities only to religious matters, started a Home Rule League. Tilak had been released from Jail in 1914. He started another Home Rule League at Pune. These Leagues worked with great enthusiasm and carried on intense propaganda in favor of Home Rule or self-government for India after the War by means of discussion groups, lecture tours and mass sale of pamphlets.The formation of the leagues put immense pressure on government to work on reforms .
4) Russia. In the meanwhile, at Lucknow, the Moderates and the Extremists, as also the Home Rulers and the Muslim League, came together and unanimously adopted the agreement known as the Lucknow Pact (Dec. 1916). They also jointly prepared a scheme of constitutional reforms. The devolution of increased political power and responsibility on the Indians was simply a response to political pressure in India. It was a device to buy support of Indians during war.
Q. What were the basic features of the Montagu-Chelmsford Scheme?
A. 1) The chief executive authority remained vested in the Governor-General who remained responsible to the British Parliament through the Secretary of State and not to the Indian Legislature. The constitution of Governor-General's executive Council was slightly modified while substantial changes were made in the composition of the Indian Legislature. But it was made clear that the aim was not to increase its powers but merely to make it more representative and increase opportunities of influencing the Government. The Act provided for a bicameral legislature at the center. The two Houses were the Council of State and the Legislative Assembly.
2) The power of the Governor-General was extended. In addition to the power to veto any bill, the Governor-General was given the power of certification also, i.e. he could secure the enactment of a bill whose passage in the form considered to be necessary was refused by the legislature. He could do so by certifying that the bill was essential for the safety, tranquility or interests of British India or any part thereof. The scope of interrogative functions was enlarged by extending the right to put supplementary questions to all the members.
3) Under the Government of India Act of 1919 responsibility for certain functions of the Government in the provinces was transferred while control over others was reserved in British hands. Under this division the subjects were divided into two halves called 'Reserved' and 'Transferred'. Accordingly the provincial government was also to consist of two halves. The Governor and the members of his Executive Council were to administer the reserved subjects. The transferred subjects were to be administered by the Governor acting with ministers. This novel distribution of executive powers in the provinces came to be known as 'dyarchy'.
Q. What were the problems in the working of dyarchy?
A. The whole conception of dyarchy was based on a faulty principle. It is very difficult to divide the functions of a state into water-tight compartments. The problem was confounded by the illogical division. While agriculture was a transferred subject, land revenue and, irrigation were resewed subjects.
A system like this could work if there was basic trust between the two halves.While ministers were there to further the interests of their countrymen, the members of the Executive Council and generally of the civil service were there to safeguard British imperial interests. Ministers had no control over civil servants even in the 'transferred' departments. The secretaries of departments had direct access to the Governor which placed the members in a disagreeable position. Further, the minister had to serve two masters. He was appointed by the Governor and could be dismissed by him. But he was accountable to the legislature. Above all, the so-called nation-building departments were
entrusted to ministers who could show results only if money was available. The ministers complained that the reserved departments got all the money they wanted before requirements of transferred departments were considered.
Q. What was the Khilafat issue ?
A. During the First World War Turkey allied with Germany and Austria against the British. The Indian Muslims regarded the Sultan of Turkey as their spiritual leader Khalifa. After the war, the British removed the Khalifa from power in Turkey. Hence, the Muslims started the Khilafat movement in India for the restoration of the Khalifa's position. Their main demands were:-
# Khalifa's control should be retained over the Muslim sacred places
# In territorial adjustments after the war the Khalifa shud be left with sufficient territories. The Khilafat issue was not directly linked 'with politics in India but the Khilafat leaders were eager in enlisting the support of Hindus. Gandhi saw in this an opportunity to bring 1919-1922 about Hindu-Muslim unity against the British.The Central Khilafat Committee met at Allahabad from 1st to 3rd June i920(Gandhi was the president ). The meeting was attended by a number of Congress and Khilafat leaders. In this meeting a program of non-cooperation towards the Government was declared. This was to include:
# boycott of titles conferred by the Government,
# boycott of civil services, army aad police, i.e. all government jobs,and
# non payment of taxes to the Government
Q. What was the program of the Non-Cooperation Movement?
A. The programm of the Non-Cooperation Movement had two main aspects:
i) constructive and
ii) destructive.,
Under the first category came:
# the nationalization of education,
# the promotion of indigenous goods,
# the popularization of charkha and Khadi, and
# the enrollment of a volunteer corps.
In the later category figured the boycott of: .
# law courts,
# educational institutions,
# elections to the legislature,
# official functions,
# British goods as well as the surrender of honors and titles conferred by the British.
The campaign for non-cooperation and boycott started with great enthusiasm from early 1921. In the first phase from January to March 1921, the main emphasis was on the boycott of schools, colleges, law courts & the use of Charkha. There was widespread student unrest and top lawyers like C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru gave up their legal practice.
This phase was followed by the second phase starting from April 1921. In this phase the basic objectives were the collection of Rs. one crore for the Tilak Swaraj Fund by August 1921, enrolling one crore Congress members and installing 20 lakh Charkhas by 30 June.
In the third phase, starting from July, the stress was on boycott of foreign cloth, boycott of the forth coming visit of the Prince of Wales in November, 1921, popularization of Charkha and Khadi and Jail Bharo by Congress volunteers.
In the last phase, between November 1921, a shift towards radicalism was visible. The Congress volunteers rallied the people and the country was on the verge of a revolt. Gandhi decided to launch a no revenue campaign at Bardoli, and also a mass civil disobedience movement for freedom of speech, press and association. But the attack on a local police station by angry peasants at Chauri Chaura, in Gorakhpur district of U.P., on 5th February 1922, changed the whole situation. Gandhi, shocked by this incident, withdrew the Noncooperation Movement.
Q. Discuss in brief the response of the peasantry to the Non-Cooperation Movement.
A. The most important landmark of this movement was the massive participation of the peasants and workers in it. The long-standing grievances of the peasants against the British, as well as the Indian masters came to the forefront during this movement. In rural areas and some other places, the peasants turned against the landlords and the traders. This gave a new dimension to the movement of 1921-22.
Bengal - The villagers in Midnapur district opposed the newly created Union Boards and the tax imposed by them.The people refused to pay taxes or agricultural rent to the Government or private landlords in the outlying districts of North Bengal.
Bihar - In Bihar the local issue of the right to graze cattle on common government wastelands and the confrontation between the "lower and upper castes" on the issue of the former taking the sacred thread got merged with the Non-Cooperation Movement. The issues of cow protection and the rights of Kisans were also focused upon. Because of this linkage, North Bihar, especially Champaran, Saran, Muzaffarpur and Purnia districts, became the storm centers of the movement by November 1921. Hut (village market) looting and confrontation with the police became frequent.
UP - In the countryside it took a different form. Here the movement got entangled with the kisan movement. Despite the repeated appeal for non-violence from the congress leadership, the peasants rose in revolt not only against Talukdara but also, against merchants. Between January and March 1921 the districts of Rae Bareli, Pratapgarh, Fyzabad and Sultanpur witnessed widespread agrarian riots under the leadership of Baba Ram Chandra. The major a demands were:
# no nazarana (extra premium on rent)
# no eviction from holdings, and
# no begar (forced labor) and rasad (forced supplies). etc.
In late 1921 there was another strong peasant outburst which is known as the 'Eka' movement under a radical leader Madari Pasi. The basic demand here was the conversion of produce rents into cash. Another significant event was the destruction of thousands of acres of reserved forests in the Kumaon Division in July 1921 by the hill-tribes as they disliked the forest regulations.
Andhra - In Andhra the grievances of tribal and other peasants against forest laws got linked to the Non-Cooperation Movement. A large number of these people met Gandhi in Cudappa in September 192 1 to get their taxes reduced and forest restrictions removed. Forest officials were boycotted. To assert their right they sent their cattle forcibly,into the forests without paying the grazing tax. The Non-Cooperation Movement attained great success in the Andhra delta area. In the same period Alluri Sitaram Raju organised the tribals in Andhra and combined their demands with those of the Non-Cooperation Movement.
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