EHI-02

2nd Part

Block 3 (Unit 10) 

Q. Discuss in about ten lines the main characteristics of the OCP culture.

A.  Ochre Coloured Pottery culture (OCP culture) was discovered during excavations in twin districts of Bisauli (Badaun district) and Rajpur Parsu (Bijnor district)UP. These were copper hoard sites. This pottery is made of medium grained clay, underfired & has a wash of ochre (which has a tendency to rub off) ranging from orange to red. Hence, those sites associated with this ware were named Ochre Coloured Pottery culture (OCP culture).

Ochre Coloured Pottery sites are generally located on river banks. These sites are small in size & the mounds have a low height at many of the sites(e.g. Bahadarabad, Bisauli, Rajpur Parsu, Saipai). This indicates a relatively short duration of these settlements. The distance between settlements varies from 5 km to 8 km. At some of the OCP sites (e.g. Ambkheri, Baheria, Bahadarabad, Jhinjhana, Lal Qila, Saipai) excavations have revealed no signs of regular habitation. The material remains of OCP culture are mostly in the form of pottery. These consist of jars (including storage jars), bowls, ring-footed bowls, flasks, handled pots, miniature pots, basins spouts, etc. Not much evidence is available regarding structures. From the evidence recorded at La1 Qila, which is scanty, it is known that

floors were made of rammed earth. The structures consisted of wattle and daub houses. This is suggested on the basis of burnt mud plaster and mud clods with reed and bamboo impressions being found at Lal Qila. Archaeobotanical remains recovered and related to this culture indicate

that rice, barley, gram, and Kesari were grown. On the basis of similarity in pottery types, some scholars believe that the OCP represented a degenerated form of the late Harappan pottery. OCP culture depending on dating existed between 2000 BC - 1500BC

Q. What are the characteristic features of BRW? Discuss in about ten lines the difference of the BRW found in. various regions.

A. Excavations at Atranjikhera in the early 1960s revealed a distinct horizon, sandwiched between OCP and PGW levels. This horizon has characteristic pottery called Black and Red Ware (BRW). A similar stratigraphic sequence has been discovered in the 1970s at Jodhpur and Noh in Rajasthan.

The characteristic features of this pottery are the black color inside and near the rim on the outside, and red color, over the rest of the body. This color combination, it is believed, has been produced by inverted firing. The pottery is mostly wheel turned, though some pots are also handmade. It is made of fine clay and has a fine fabric with thin walls. Black and Red Ware pottery with paintings have

also been found at sites in Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, and West Bengal. But in the BRW of the doab area, there is an absence of paintings. There are differences in the shape and designs of the BRW potteries found in different areas some of them are -

# The important feature of doab BRW (also of that at Noh) is its plain surface, devoid of any paintings. The BRW found at Gilund and Ahar, on the other hand, is painted in white on the black surface.

# There are also typological differences. The painted BRW from Ahar has carinated concave sides, and the fabric is coarse. The plain BRW of the doab has no carination, and the fabric is fine.

# The dish with a featureless rim and concave sides present in large numbers in the BRW of the doab is absent at Ahar and Gilund.

# Bowls with spouts and dish-on-stand present at Ahar and Gilund have not been found in the doab sites.

It also covers a vast time span from 2400 B.C. to the early centuries of the Christian era.

Q. Discuss PAINTED GREY WARE CULTURE (PGW)

A.  Painted Grey Ware (PGW) was discovered firstly at Ahichchhatra in 1946, since then a huge number of sites have been brought to light in different parts of north India. The concentration of PGW sites is in the Indo-Gangetic divide (Haryana), Sutlej basin and the upper Ganga plains. Settlements are located along river banks. The average distance from one side to the other is about 10 km. to 12 km. though in some cases it is also 5 km. The settlements at these sites are mostly small villages (1 to 4 hectares)

i) Pottery: Pottery is wheal made, out of well-levigated clay and has a thin core:

# It has a smooth surface, grey to ash-grey in color.

# It is painted in black and sometimes in a deep chocolate color on the outer as well as the inner surface.

# It has nearly 42 designs and the most common types are bowls and dishes

ii) Structures: The houses and other structures were of wattle and daub. This is indicated by the occurrence of patches of burnt earth, mud bricks, burnt bricks, mud platforms, and mud plaster pieces, with reed and bamboo impressions.

iii) Other Objects: A variety of objects made out of copper, iron, glass, and bone were found in excavations. These consist of axes, chisels, fish hooks and arrowheads. Spearheads are made only of iron.

iv) Crops and Animal Remains: Evidence of cultivated crops is available only at Hastinapura and Atranjikhera. At the former site, remains of only rice were found and the latter has yielded the remains of wheat and barley. Bones of horse, cattle, pig, goat, and deer have been found.

v) Trade Practices and Linkages: Beads made of a variety of semi-precious stones (like agate, jasper, carnelian, chalcedony, lapis lazuli) are found at different PGW sites in the doab. None of these stones, as raw material, are available in the doab. These items could have been obtained by trade. Agate and chalcedony are found in Kashmir, Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh whereas lapis lazuli is to be found in Badakshan province in Afghanistan. Thus, the people inhabiting the PGW sites must have obtained these stones through trade or exchange with these Regions.

Q. Describe NBP ware culture. 

A. This ware was first discovered at Taxila in 1930, since then 1500 sites have been discovered in different parts. Because of its black color and fine luster, the culture is known as Northern Black Polished Ware Culture. The excavations have revealed that:

# at several sites NBP Ware culture succeeded PGW levels, and

# at some sites NBP succeeded BRW, and NBP is succeeded by Red Slipped Ware.

There are two phases of NBP ware culture -

Phase 1 - This is the first phase characterized by a predominance of NBP Ware and the presence of shreds of BRW and PGW, though in meager quantities. In this phase, there is an absence of punch-marked coins and burnt brick structures, which signify a higher level of development.

Phase 2 - Pottery specimens belonging to BRW and PGW are not found in this phase. NBP Ware is of poor quality (thicker in fabric) and is found in smaller numbers. A coarse grey ware comes into greater use. Punch marked coins and burnt bricks make their first appearance. Taking into account the similarities between NBP & PGW some scholars have suggested that the former is a refined form of the latter.

Structures - Excavations revealed that during this period building activities began on a large scale and that cities began to emerge. Houses were made of burnt bricks, and the use of timber in house construction is evidenced, the roofs of houses were covered with tiles. The rooms were square as well as rectangular. Also, the elaborate drainage system was discovered. The fortifications signify defensive measures against invasion and speak of political tensions.

Pottery - The most characteristic feature of NBP Ware is its glossy surface. It is turned on a fast wheel and is made of well-levigated clay. NBP was a luxury ware not Available to everybody and suggests to us that in the society in which NBP Ware was used society was divided into unequal groups.

Other Objects - Several kinds of tools, weapons, ornaments and other objects made of copper, iron, gold, silver, stone, glass and bone have been recovered from NBP Ware sites. Copper and Iron objects are found in abundance during this period. Silver punch-marked coins have been found from the middle phase of NBP culture. These indicate a possible shift from the barter system to a system of exchange of goods through metallic currency.

Ornaments -

Beads made of semi-precious stones, glass, clay, copper shell, and bone are most commonly found. The ornament excavated indicates -

# use of ornaments in that society

# existence of specialized craftsmen to make them

# level of technology for making them, and

# trade or exchange activities with other regions to procure various semi-precious Stones.

Terracotta Figurines

These comprise human and animal figurines and miscellaneous objects. The miscellaneous terracotta objects are toy carts, simple & animal-headed gamesman; discs, balls, fleshrubbers and potter's stamps. At a later stage of this culture are found seals and sealings bearing inscriptions in Brahmi script.

Subsistence Economy and Trade

Archaeobotanical remains indicate that rice, wheat, barley, millet, pea, and black gram were cultivated. And the animal remains found from some of the sites suggest dependence on cattle, sheep, goat, pig, and fish. The diverse variety of beads, found to be common at several sites, Gives evidence of trade. This indicates trade links existed between Taxila, Hastinapura, Ahichchhara, Sravasti, and Kausambi during Ca. 600 B.C. to 200 B.C. Buddhist texts also testifies about trade guilds, and the caravans of camels, horses, mules, oxen, and buffaloes. Between the 6th and 3rd centuries B.C. there was trade between India and countries to the west. The main items of export were textiles, spices. Arthasastra (Book-II) tells the state not only exercised control over trade but also had a monopoly over industries like gold, copper, iron, lead, tin, silver, diamond, gems and precious stones.

Q. What are the characteristics of Malwa settlements?

A.  Excavations at Inamgaon revealed that settlements were quite large and planning was adopted in the laying out of the settlement. Houses were rectangular and were aligned in a roughly east-west orientation. Though these houses were built close to each other, they had an intervening space of about I-2m in between which might have served as a lane. Inside the house was a large oval fire pit with raised sides for keeping the fire under control. The houses were provided with one or two mouthed challahs in the kitchen. The grain was stored in deep pit silos. Malwa Culture settlements have a fortified mud wall with stone rubble bastions and ditch around the habitation.

Q. Discuss in about five lines the characteristics of Daimabad Hoard. 

A.  It was a chance discovery, four objects on the top of the mound (below which is a deposit, 1.2m thick belonging to the Jorwe period) came to light at Daimabad. These are massive, all solid cast, and weigh over 60 kg:

i) Elephant: This is the heaviest (25 cm in height X 27 cm in length), and stands on a cast copper platform with four brackets beneath, pierced, to take axles.

ii) Rhinoceros: This is slightly smaller, and also stands on a casting platform. The brackets contain two solid copper axles with cast wheels attached. This rhinoceros recalls the one inscribed on the Indus seals.

ii) Two-Wheeled Chariot with a Rider: The chariot is attached by a long pole to the yoked oxen which stands on two cast copper strips, but there are no brackets for wheels. The chariot has two uprights supporting a cross-bar behind which the rider stands. This piece has no parallels.

iv) Buffalo: This also has wheels and axle in position. This has some parallels in the figures of buffalo5 in both terracotta and case copper or bronze found from Mohenjodaro. The copper of the Daimabad hoard compares with that of other copper objects found in excavations, and spectrometric analysis of this metal has revealed that it is unalloyed by tin or other metals.

Unit 11

Q. Write ten lines on the cultural phases of the early farming communities in South India.

A.  There were 3 phases of the growth of the early farming communities in south India.

Phase I: The earliest settlements of these farming communities represent this phase. These were made on tops of granitoid hills, or on leveled terraces on hillsides, or in the valleys between two or more hills. The material culture consists of a polished stone axe industry, blade industry, and handmade pottery. In pottery, grey or buff-brown ware is most common. Maski and Brahmagiri have all revealed the first phase of settlements of these agro-pastoral communities. This phase can be ascribed

between 2500-1800 B.C. on the basis of radiocarbon dates.

Phase II: The settlement pattern of Phase-I continues without any change settlements were still made on top of granitic hills, or on leveled surfaces on the hillsides. Nonetheless, there are some important developments. The settlements had circular hutments of wattle and daub on wooden frames with mud floors. In this phase, new pottery types like the perforated and spouted vessels appeared. The discovery of such pottery types reveals contacts with regions in the north. The polished stone axe and blade industries proliferated in this phase. Copper and bronze objects were also discovered for the first time and their numbers increased towards the end of this phase. The available radiocarbon dates for this phase suggest a timespan covering 1800-1500 B.C.

Phase III: The important development in this phase is the increase in the number of copper and bronze tools. The stone axe and blade industries continue. In pottery a new grey and buff ware with a harder surface become common. This phase can be ascribed to the period 1400-1050 B.C.

Q. Can the economy of the farming communities of South India be characterized as Agro-pastoral?

A.  The economy of these communities was a combination of agriculture and & animal husbandry (cattle predominantly and sheep/goat to some extent), it can be termed agro-pastoral. The available archaeobotanical evidence indicates that millets and pulses were the main cultivated crops. Excavations yielded remains that belong to both domesticated and wild species. The domesticated species consist of cattle, buffalo, sheep, goats, pigs, dogs, and fowl. Cattle predominate at the majority of the sites indicating its importance in the economy of these communities.

Q. What did the ash mounds discovered at various sites signify?

A.  The ash mounds were originally the sites for cattle pens where dung accumulated; they were created because of the burning of cow dung; and that this burning was perhaps a part of the rituals performed by the neolithic communities.

Q. Write in about 100 words about the Iron Age in South India.

A.  On the basis of objects recovered during excavations, the use of iron in South India began sometime around 1100 B.C. The iron objects were recovered from the burial pits in south India. Most of the information about the iron age in south India comes from the excavations of the megalithic graves. The dead were buried with an array of iron objects: flat iron axes often with crossed iron bands for hafting, different types of flanged spade, hoe, and a spud or pickaxe, sickles, bill hooks,

wedges, crowbars, spears, knives, chisels or adzes, iron tripods, pot rests, saucers, hooklamps, many armed lam-pendants, daggers, swords (some with ornamental bronze hilts), arrowheads and spearheads with hollow sockets, ceremonial scalloped axes, iron tridents, etc.

Q. Write five lines on the economy of the South Indian Megalith builders.

A. Some scholars are of the opinion that people belonging to this place were proficient in tracing iron ore deposits and in the manufacture of a variety of iron objects. They were trading in these items and gradually took to settled life. The settlements found near the megalithic complexes have very thin debris of occupation indicating that these people were living in one area for a very short time. With the knowledge of iron, they could colonize new areas. Thus, some of the population was nomadic and some settlements might indicate the colonization of new areas.

Unit 12

Q. What are the four Vedas? Which Veda belongs specifically to the Early Vedic Period. 

A. Rig, Sama, Yajur, Atharva. Rigveda

Q. Is the theory of the Aryan invasion acceptable in the light of the archaeological excavations? Give the arguments of the Archaeologists in 100 words.

A.  The archaeological sources do not support the theory of Aryan invasion or migration. Archaeological evidence relating to the period between the second millennium B.C. and the first millennium B.C. has thus helped us modify existing views regarding the Vedic 'Aryans' in several ways. First, there is no substantial proof in archaeology that there was large-scale migration of people from central or western Asia into the Indian subcontinent around 1500 B.C. Second archaeologically there is no proof that the Aryans destroyed the Harappan civilization and laid the foundation of a new Indian civilization. The following points suggested by archaeological excavations at various sites prove Aryan invasion theory a misconception -

i) Earlier scholars believed that the Indo-Aryans caused the downfall of the Harappan civilization by destroying the Harappan towns and cities. They quoted Rigvedic hymns which invoke Indra to destroy the dwellers of the forts. But archaeological evidence has shown that the decline of the Harappan civilization was not caused by any large-scale destruction brought about by an alien invading Group but it was a long gradual process.

ii) Attempts to identify the makers of Painted Grey Ware with the Aryans also do not receive strong support from archaeological evidence. If the PGW cultures related to the Aryans, then keeping the theory of invasion in mind, we should have found this pottery type in the areas of Bahawalpur and Punjab i.e. along the route taken by the so-called Aryan migrants. However, we find these pottery

types confined to a particular geographical region comprising Haryana, Upper Ganga basin and eastern Rajasthan.

iii) It was earlier thought that there exists a time gap and hence, a cultural discontinuity between the late Harappan and the post-Harappan chalcolithic Period. However, recent excavations at Bhagwanpura, Dadheri (Haryana), and Manda (Jammu) have shown that the Late Harappan and Painted Grey Wares could be found together without any breaks. Hence."invasion" cannot be proved on the basis of the excavated sites.

Q. What do you understand by 'pastoral society'? Why was it the dominant occupational activity of the Early Vedic people?.

A.  The Early Vedic society was pastoral, cattle rearing being the dominant occupational activity. A pastoral society relies more on its animal wealth than agricultural produce. Pastoralism is a subsistence strategy adopted by people who live in areas where large scale agriculture is not feasible due to some environmental and to a certain extent, cultural constraints. Compared to the very substantial linguistic evidence for cattle rearing in the Rigveda, agricultural activities find very few references. Most of the references to agriculture are of a later date. Apart from 'Yava' or barley, no other grains are mentioned. Early Vedic people did not use iron technology. Copper, with which they were familiar did not have as much value in agricultural operations as iron implements. Stone tools (like axes) were used and these are mentioned in the Rigveda. The fire was used to burn down the forest cover and shifting agriculture was practiced. Further, the region under discussion receives low rainfall and all the rivers mentioned in the Rigveda i.e. the Satluj, Indus, Ghaggar, Ravi, etc. are known to change their courses frequently. Without the facilities of large-scale irrigation which were not developed in this period, the alluvial lands near the rivers could not be cultivated on a permanent basis. Thus the hoes, sickles, and axes mentioned in the texts, were used for slashing purposes or shifting cultivation. The evidence of pastoralism as well as shifting cultivation suggests that the people were either nomadic or semi-nomadic. They moved out of their villages with their herds for a certain period in order to feed their cattle. The literary and the archaeological sources do show that the people did not lead a fully sedentary life.

Q. What was the importance of cattle in the Early Vedic Society? Answer in 50 words.

A. The Early Vedic society was pastoral, cattle rearing being the dominant occupational activity. A pastoral society relies more on its animal wealth than agricultural produce. Pastoralism is a subsistence strategy adopted by people who live in areas where large scale agriculture is not feasible due to some environmental and to a certain extent, cultural constraints. Social religions and all important areas of Rigvedic life centered round the rearing of cows. Literary references to pasture lands, a cow pen, dairy products, and domesticated animals are also found in most of the hymns and prayers. Hymns of the Rigveda yield extensive evidence of the importance of cattle in the Early Vedic society. Many linguistic expressions in the Rigveda are associated with the cow (gau). Cattle was the chief measure of wealth and a wealthy man who owned many cattle was called 'gomat'.

Q. Discuss five important characteristics of the Early Vedic Society? Write in 5 sentences.

A.  1) The Early Vedic Society was a tribal society, in which social relations based on Kinship ties were predominant.

2) The society was not divided according to caste lines, and even the rajas (kings), the purohits (priests), the artisans, etc. were parts of the clan networks.

3) The tribe was referred to as the Jana and many references to the different tribes are found in the Rigveda. Inter-tribal conflicts were frequent, an example being the battle of the Ten. Kings mentioned in the Rigveda.

4) Society was patriarchal. The birth of a son was the common desire of the people. The importance given to the male members is reflected in the hymns, where the desire for a son is a constant prayer.

5) Various occupational groups such as those of weavers, smith, carpenters, leather workers, chariot makers, priests, etc. are also mentioned. The chariot makers occupied a special social status. There are no references to beggars, wage-earners or wages in the Rigveda.

Q. What was the position of the Rajan in the Early Vedic polity?

A.  Raja was the chief of the tribe, frequent wars made him important, he was the protector of the tribe, his position was not always hereditary but he was selected from amongst the clansmen. Inter-tribal conflicts were frequent and most of these conflicts are for cattle raids, thefts, etc. Which were the mainstay of the economy and hence the office of Raja became important as a protecter.

Q. Discuss the nature of the religion of the Early Vedic people.

A. The religious ideas of the Vedic people are reflected in the hymns of the Rigveda. They venerated the natural forces around them (like wind, water, rain, thunder, fire, etc.) which they could not control. Indra and Agni were given the utmost importance, one for rains and others being pure and taking the offering directly to the gods. The sacrifice of animals was frequent and religion was based on material gains.

Unit 13

Q. Write in fifty words the impact iron technology had on Late Vedic society

A.  From the excavations, it appears that. the use of iron was restricted to making weapons. Iron did not influence agricultural technology until the second half of the first millennium B.C. when the marshlands and monsoon forests in the middle Gangetic valley were gradually cleared. Iron tipped weapons and horse chariots helped military activities which were rampant in this period and have been extensively documented in the Mahabharata. However, in subsistence related activities, iron technology had practically no role.

Q. What was the family in the later Vedic period?

A. The patriarchal family was well established and the grihapati acquired a Special status. Since the householding economy was gaining predominance, the position of the householder acquired economic importance. The rights on land were based on usage, and communal ownership of land prevailed. The grihapatis were wealthy and their ritual role was that of a yajamma (i.e. he who orders sacrifice). Their wealth did not come from gifts but was produced by their own efforts. Despite the

presence of some women philosophers and the references to a few queens participating in the coronation rituals, women were considered subordinate to men and were not involved in any major decision making.

Q. What does the changing status of gods in the Later Vedic phase indicate?

A.  The changing status of the deities is an indication of the change in the character of the tribes from pastoral groups to sedentary agriculturist groups. The Early Vedic gods who represented natural phenomena were slowly discarded and the personification of; natural elements as divine beings became very complex. It was no longer easy to find the natural element which represented a particular god from the hymns of the Later Vedic period. Two prominent EarlyVedic gods, Indra and

Agni lost its importance. Prajapati the creator became important, Rudra, a minor deity in the Rigveda, became important now and Vishnu was conceived as the creator and protector of the universe.

EHI - 02

Block 1 (Unit 1)

Q.  Discuss the physical features responsible for the rise of Magadha.

A. Some of the physical features responsible for the rise of Magadha were -

#  highly fertile soils,

#  sufficient rainfall ensuring a rich annual paddy crop;

#  proximity to iron ore mines and sources of stone and timber of Chotanagpur Plateau which is towards the south of Magadha;

#  the rivers provided for comfortable communication and trade;

#  the closeness and continuity of settlements, occurred in this area taking full advantage of natural resources, leading to great population density.

A combination of these factors helped the easy conquest of the northern Gangetic plain. The territorial expansion over the northern plains then provided the basis for the complete  Indian territorial supremacy. The supremacy achieved by Magadha was based on the conquest of the northern plains which had all necessary requirements such as soil, rainfall, vegetation, easy communication lines and availability of natural resources. The surrounding rivers like the Ganga, Son and Gandak provided for natural defense and easy trade and transport thus facilitating the growth of the Magadha empire.

Q.  Discuss in about five lines the various kinds of pottery and the period it is associated with.
A. Pottery, because of its indestructible quality, helps an identifying mark of a culture and an important means of archaeological classification. Different cultures are identified by their pottery. We have the Ochre-Coloured Pottery Ware (OCP) which is dated earlier than 1000 B.C., the Painted Grey Ware (PGW) which roughly dated between 800-400 B.C., the Black and Red Ware (BRW) which lies in between the two and the Northern Black Polished (NBP) Ware which is dated between 500-100 B.C. The first three pottery types are basically encountered in the Indo-Gangetic divide and the upper Ganga valley, including the Doab. The Northern Black Polished Ware (NBP) has its center of origin in the middle Gangetic plain and spread out into Central India and the Deccan during the Mauryan period.

Q.  Discuss in about ten lines the factors which hindered the political unification of the Indian sub-continent.
A.  The development of strong regional personalities; strength of regional personalities; strength of regional forces etc. were major impediments for the unification of the Indian subcontinent .' The difference between regions may be explained in terms of :
# geography
# the manner and period of the spread of material culture, and
# the other important historical forces such as population, technology, social
the organization, communications, etc.
A combination of these factors helped in the shaping and development of the personality of the regions.
Owing to the development of distinct and strong regional personalities and the strength of regional forces the Indian sub-continent was never completely politically united. Some regions owing to their inner strength tried to expand and attain pan-Indian status with limited success. The Mauryas, Tughlaqs, Mughals and the British provided a semblance of political unity. However, none of them succeeded in imposing political unity on all the geographic units and culture areas, though the British came very close to it. Central India and the extreme end of Peninsular India have always remained outside the ambit of any strong, expansive pan-Indian power. Two geographical impediments were the Vindhyas that separate North India and the Deccan peninsula and Aravalis range also working as another frontier line.

Unit 3

Q.  Which period of Social evolution represents the hunting-gathering stage :
a) Palaeolithic Age
b) Mesolithic Age
C) Palaeolithic and Mesolithic Age
d) Neolithic Age
A.  Palaeolithic and Mesolithic Age

Q.  Pleistocene Period was :
a) Very cold
b) Very warm
c) Temperature was laid
d) Very dry
A. Very Cold

Q.  Palaeolithic Culture has been divided into three phases on the ba& of :
a) Change in the climate
b) The nature of stone tools.
c) Faunal remains
d) Nature of stone tools and change in climate and faunal remains
A. Nature of stone tools and change in climate and faunal remains

Q.  The Mesolithic tools are primarily:
a) Handaxe and cleaver
b) Cleaver, Chopper and Chopping tools
c) Blade, Core, Point, and Lunate &
d) Chopping tool and flake
A.  Blade, Core, Point, and Lunate

Q.  Mesolithic sites have been reported from:
a) The river Kothsri
b) The river Tapti
c) Godavari delta
d) The rivers Kothari, Tapti and Godavari delta
A. The rivers Kothari, Tapti and Godavari delta

Q.  Which one of the following statements is most appropriate?
a) The subsistence pattern of Mesolithic people was based on the hunting of animals
b) gathering of wild fruits and seeds
c) hunting of animals and gathering of wild fruits
d) surplus food pr4uction
A.  hunting of animals and gathering of wild fruits

Q.  What do the Mesolithic tools and paintings suggest in terms of subsistence pattern and social organization?
A. The diet of the people during the Mesolithic Age included both meat and vegetable food. The remains of fish, tortoise, hare, mongoose, porcupine, deer and nilgai have been found from different Mesolithic sites. Besides hunting and fishing, the Mesolithic people also collected wild roots, tubers, fruits, honey, etc. and these constituted important elements in the overall dietary pattern. The plant food seems to have been more easily available than the hunted animal food as the tools used were small, not ideal for hunting.
    The paintings and engravings found at the rock shelters which the Mesolithic people used to give us a considerable idea about the social life and economic activities of Mesolithic people. Sites like Bhimbetka, Adamgarh, Pratapgarh, and Mirzapur are rich in Mesolithic art and paintings. Hunting, food-gathering, fishing, and other human activities are reflected in these paintings and engravings. Bhimbetka is extremely rich in paintings. The paintings and engravings depict activities like sexual union, childbirth, rearing of a child, and burial ceremony. All these indicate that during
the Mesolithic period, the social organization had become more stable than in paleolithic times.

Unit 4

Q.  Discuss in about 10 lines the main characteristics of the Neolithic stage of culture.
A. The domestication of plants and animals has been considered as one of the main characteristic features of the Neolithic stage of culture. Some other characteristics of Neolithic culture were -
#  Practice of agriculture
#  Domestication of animals
#  Grinding and polishing of stone tools, and also
#  The manufacture of pottery.
The neolithic stage represents a culture of the pre-metal stage where the inhabitants had assured the supply of food by the cultivation of cereals and domestication of animals and led a sedentary life. However, Ground stone tools remain the most essential
characteristics of Neolithic culture.
Domestication of plants and animals led to:
#  the emergence of village communities based on sedentary life,
#  the beginnings of agriculture technology, and
#  greater control over nature by the exploitation of natural resources

Q.  According to Gordon Childe, Neolithic culture represents a .self sufficient  (dependent/self-sufficient) food-producing economy.
ii) Ground stone (Ground stone/Copper) tools remain the essential characteristic of
Neolithic culture.
iii) Jericho is the earliest known village with a  mud fortification (water tank/mud fortification).
iv) Catal Huyuk was a large (large/small) village in Turkey (Turkey/Iran).

Q.  What do the finds of pottery, ground tools, and mud hutments, etc. indicate in terms of development in human society?
A. The neolithic phase represents the evolution of human society from hunter-gatherer into a sedentary farmer. The origins of agriculture and beginnings of domestication of animals led to the establishment of villages and self-sufficiency of food grains. This was a revolutionary transformation from nomadic life to settled life. This led to the beginning of village settlements with mud hutments, manufacturing of pottery and manufacturing of new types of tools for hunting, now they were polished to agriculture.
Human communities entered a new stage of culture when, instead of depending entirely on the resources of nature for survival, they started producing their own food by cultivating cereals like barley, wheat, and rice and started domesticating some species of animals-both for supplies of milk and meat as well as for harnessing their labor for various purposes. Domestication of plants and animals led to:
#  the emergence of village communities based on sedentary life,
#  the beginnings of agriculture technology, and
#  greater control over nature by the exploitation of natural resources.
Well, all these indicate a process during which human beings were. moving from simple to complex societies; Division of labor: advances in technology; need-based inventions, etc. Were associated with this time.

Block 2 (Unit 5)

Q. Write ten lines on the geographical features of the early Harappan Civilization.
A. The areas of present-day Pakistan and North-West India formed the core region of the Harappan civilization. These areas are characterized by dry weather and scanty rainfall. However, there are variations among these areas. Whereas the areas of Punjab and Sindh are dominated by the alluvial plains of the Indus river system, the areas of Baluchistan are characterized by steep hills. This area has been inhabited by another set of people also, namely pastoral nomads. These pastoral nomads with their herds of sheep, goats, and cattle kept shifting from uplands to low lands in search of pastures for their herd. These hilly regions are fractured by many passes, like those of Khyber, Gomal and Bolan. These have acted as highways of traffic for nomads, merchants, warriors and various groups of people.

Q. How did different areas of the early Harappan period evolve into a civilization?
A. There were similarities found in the cultural traditions of diverse agricultural communities living in & around the Indus regions in the Early Harappan period. Although distinct regional traditions emerged among the small agricultural settlements the areas of Baluchistan, Sind, Punjab, and Rajasthan yet the use of similar kinds of potteries, representations of a horned deity & finds of terracotta mother goddesses show the way to the emergence of a unifying tradition and a civilization. Many factors that resulted in the evolution of the Harappa civilization were the developments that took place over a period of nearly three thousand years. Better Agriculture Technology and production Cultivators colonized the alluvial plains of the Indus during this period. These communities were using tools of copper, bronze, and stone. They were using plough and wheeled transport for the greater productivity of labor. The Indus people reared cattle which gave them better
possibilities of harnessing animal power for transportation and cultivation. This better use of technology increased agricultural production thus bringing in prosperity and supporting a greater population. The increasingly efficient technology and the exploitation of the fertile plains of the Indus increased grain production. larger agricultural surpluses lead to an increase in population. At the same time trading contacts established with distant communities of Mesopotamia etc by the richer section of the society increased the trade. The larger surpluses led to the increase of non-farming specialization thus, village priest could become the part of a clan of priests spread over the entire region. Similarily, metallurgists, potters, and craftsmen came into prominence. The improvements in transportation facilitated trade and better unification. At the same time, a gradual unification too took place in the pottery tradition. In the 'Early Harappan' period a particular kind of pottery first
identified in Kot Diji was spread over almost the entire area of Baluchistan, Punjab, and Rajasthan. In the backdrop of these processes of technological and ideological unification emerged the Harappan Civilization.

Unit 6

Q. Discuss the geographical location of the important centers of Harappan Civilization
A.  Some important centers of Harappan Civilization were -
Harappa - It is located on the bank of the Ravi in Western Punjab. It is one of the major cities of the civilization, and it was located in the midst of some important trade routes which are still in use. These routes connected Harappa with Central Asia, Afghanistan and Jammu. Harappa's pre-eminent position was linked to its ability to procure exotic items from faraway lands. The ruins of the city cover a circuit of about 3 miles. In Harappa, a substantial section of the population was engaged in activities other than food production. These activities could relate to administration, trade, craftwork or, religion. Since these people were not producing foo themselves, it was procured from nearby villages.
Mohenjodaro
Mohenjodaro, located in the Larkana district of Sind on the bank of the river Indus is the largest site of the Harappan Civilization. Most of the information regarding the town planning, housing, seals & sealings of this Civilization comes from Mohenjodaro. Excavations show that people lived here for a very long time and went on building and rebuilding houses at the same location. As a result of this, the height of the remains of the building and the debris is about seventy-five feet. Ever since the time
of occupation, there were regular floods at Mohenjodaro. These floods caused deposition of alluvial soil.

Kalibangan
The settlement of Kalibangan is located in Rajasthan along the dried-up bed of the river Ghaggar. This area had the largest concentration of the Harappan settlements. Kalibangan has yielded evidence for the existence of Pre-Harappan and Harappan habitations. It shows significant variation from Harappan in the sphere of religious beliefs. Some scholars have suggested that Kalibangan might have been part of the 'Eastern Domain' of the Harappan Civilization. They give evidence of the presence of distinct local traditions in pottery along with the Harappan pottery. Kalibangan might
have been a mediator between the Harappan cultural zone & the eastern provinces.

Lothal
In Gujarat settlements such as Rangapur, Surkotada & Lothal have been discovered. Lothal is located in the coastal flats of the Gulf of Cambay. This place seems to have been an outpost for sea-trade with contemporary West Asian societies. It's excavator S.R. Rao claims to have discovered a dockyard here.

Sutkagen-Dor
Sutkagen-Dor is located near the Makran coast which is close to the Pakistan-Iran border. At present, the settlement is land-locked in dry inhospitable plains.

Q. Discuss the material characteristics of the Harappan Civilization
A.  Some of the material characteristics of Harappan Civilization were -
Town-Planning - There was uniformity in town planning in Harappan towns. Each town is divided into 2 parts. In one part was a raised citadel where the rulers were staying, in the other part of the town lived the ruled and the poor. The settlements of Harappa, Mohenjodaro, and Kalibangan show certain uniformities in their planning. These cities were divided into a citadel on the west side and a
lower town on the eastern side of the settlement. The citadel was built on a high podium of mud brick. The citadel seems to have contained large structures which might have functioned as administrative or ritual centers. The lower city contained residential areas. In Mohenjodaro and Harappa the citadel was surrounded by a brick wall. At Kalibangan both the citadel and the lower city were surrounded by a wall, streets ran from north to south in the lower city and cut at right angles. In
Harappa and Mohenjodaro baked bricks were used for buildings. Harappans were using baked and unbaked bricks of standard size. This shows that it was not the individual house owners who made their own bricks, but that brick making was organized on a large scale. Similarly, cities like Mohenjodaro showed excellent I arrangements for sanitation.

Pottery - Most of Harappan pottery is plain, but a substantial part is treated with a red slip and black painted decoration. The painted decorations consist of horizontal tines of varied thickness, leaf patterns, scales, chequers, latticework, palm and pipal trees. Birds, fishes, and animals are also shown. Among the notable shapes found in the Harappan pottery are a pedestal, dishes, goblets, cylindrical vessels perforated all over and various kinds of bowls.

Tools and Implements
The tools and implements used by the Harappans also show a striking degree of uniformity in designs and in the technique of production. They were using tools made of copper, bronze, and stone. The basic tools types were flat axe, chisels, knives, spearheads and arrowheads for the copper and bronze implements. In the later stages of Civilization, they were also using daggers, knives and flat tangs. They were familiar Hooks for fishing with the techniques of casting bronze and copper. Stone tools were also in common use. They were produced on a large scale in factory sites like Sukkur in Sind and then sent to various urban centers.

Arts and Crafts
Works of art give us an insight into how society relates itself to its surroundings. There are many art pieces discovered from Harappan civilization, prominent among them were - the bronze dancing nude figure discovered in Mohenjodaro, The two little toy carts of bronze, The stone sculpture of a bearded head found in Mohenjodaro. Apart from bronze and stone artworks, Terracotta figurines have
also been found in large numbers from the Harappan settlements. They were used as toys or cult figures. The Harappans used remarkably beautiful beads made of such precious and semi-precious stones such as agate, turquoise, carnelian, and steatite. Gold and silver beads have also been found. More than 2000 seals have been found from the Harappan settlements. They are considered 'the outstanding contribution of the Indus Civilization' to ancient craftsmanship. They were generally square in shape and made of steatite but some round seals have also been found. The designs on the seals include a wide range of animals associated with groups of signs in a semi-pictographic script. Some seals have only scripts carved on them and some others bear-human and semi-human
forms. Some seals show the use of various kinds of geometric patterns.

The Indus Script
The seals used by the Harappans carried some form of writing. This script is still a mystery and has yet to be deciphered by scholars.

Subsistence Pattern
The Harappans urbanism was based on agricultural production. Two varieties of wheat are frequently found in Harappan sites. Barley has been frequently found. Other crops include dates and varieties of leguminous plants, such as peas. Besides this mustard and sesamum were also grown. At Lothal and Rangapur rice husk was found embedded in clay and pottery. Fragments of cotton cloth are also found in some areas indicating Harappans had mastered the art of growing cotton and wearing cloth. Thus, we find that the Harappan subsistence system was based on the exploitation of a fairly wide range of crops, domesticated animals and wild animals. This variety would account for the strength of the subsistence system.

Unit 7

Q. Discuss the exchange system among the Harappan towns.
A.  The Harappans had established an extensive network of inter-regional trade inside and outside the Indian sub-continent. The Harappans had made distinct attempts at regulating trade and exchange amongst themselves. Even the far-flung Harappan sites have yielded uniform systems of weights and measures. The weights followed a binary system in the lower denominations: 1,2,4,8, to 64, then going to 160 and then in decimal multiples of 16, 320, 640, 1600, 3200, etc. Made of chert, limestone, steatite, etc. they are, generally cubical in shape. The measures of length were based upon a unit of the foot of 37.6 cm and a unit of the cubit of about 51.8 to 53.6 cms. Such a uniform system of weights and measures indicates an attempt by the central authorities to regulate exchange among the Harappans themselves and possibly with the non-Harappans too. Seals and sealings have been discovered in large numbers in the Harappan settlements. Seals and sealings are marks of ownership meant to guarantee the quality of the product being sent to faraway lands.

a) The Harappans obtained gold from.. .....kashmir........(Kashmir/Rajasthan).
b) (Iron/ Tin) ....Iron....... was not known to the Harappans.
c) Lapis Lazuli was discovered in large quantity at.. ...Shortughai...............(Kalibangan/Shortughai).
d) Copper has obtained from.. ..Rajasthan....... (Rajasthan/Gujarat).
e) (Suktagen-Dor/Kalibangan)...SuktagenDor.....was important as a trading port between the Harappans and the Mesopotamians.

Q. Write in five sentences on the transportation system of the Harappans.
A.   Many representations of ships and boats are found on seals in Harappa and Mohenjodaro. At Lothal was found a terracotta model of a ship with a stick impressed socket for the mast and eyeholes for fixing rigging. At Lothal was also discovered a brick basin 219 by 37 meters in length, with brick walls of 4.5 meters in height. The excavator believed that it was a dockyard. Apart from this site, the
seashore of the Arabian sea seems to have been dotted with many sea-ports. Places like Rangapur, Somnath, and Balakot would have functioned as outlets for the Harappans. Even in the inhospitable Makran coast, Harappan sites like Sutkagen-Dor and Sutkakoh have been discovered. The primary reason for their location in those inhospitable tracts was that they were safe from the dangerous monsoon storms and currents hitting the sea-coast in Western India and Sind. In the monsoon months,
they could function as outlets for the Harappans. The inland transport was done with bullock carts. Many terracotta models of bullock carts have been found in Harappan settlements. In Harappa was
found a bronze model of a cart with a seated driver and also models of little carts which are very ' similar to the modem 'Ikka' used in Punjab. For a longer journey through the wooded country, caravans of pack-oxen would be the chief means of transport. In historical times a large number of goods were transported by pastoral nomadic communities. Possibly the Harappans also engaged in similar practices. However, in those times river systems would have been the channels of transportation because they were cheaper and safer.

Unit 8

Q. Write five lines on Harappan Script.
A.  The written script of the Harappans has been discovered but had not been deciphered yet by scholars. Some scholars believe that the language is written there is ancestral to the Dravidian group of languages like Tamil while others consider it was ancestral to language like Sanskrit. Scholars are of opinion that the Harappan script was not in common use and a very small section of privileged scribes had a monopoly over the written word.

Q. On what basis can we say that Harappan was an Urban Civilization.
A.  Many reasons are available that indicate that Harappan civilization was an
Urban Civilization they were -
1) The construction and maintenance of elaborate drainage systems and streets.
2) The granaries which would collect food grains from the surrounding hinterland and redistribute it among the citizens of cities
3) The sheer range and volume of products consumed by the residents indicate the consumption pattern of cities.
These are some of the basis indicating Urban Civilization of Harappans.

Q. A number of things found in Harappan excavations indicate the presence of civic and political authority. What are these?
A. 1) The construction and maintenance of 'elaborate drainage system and streets would require a municipal authority in the cities.
2) The granaries indicate the presence of an authority which would collect food grains from the surrounding hinterland and redistribute it among the citizens.
3) As pointed out earlier, the tools, weapons, bricks, etc. show a remarkable uniformity of design. Some of the tools and weapons seem to have been mass-produced in one place and then distributed to various cities and settlements. The organization of production and distribution of these objects over an area covering thousands of km. would give tremendous power to those who decided how much to produce and where to send the products. If these people were to stop the supply of goods to a particular town, that town would be starved of tools and implements.
4) The sheer range and volume of products consumed by the residents of the large Cities indicate that some kind of a ruling class resided in them. Many of the objects were rarities brought from faraway lands.
5) Similarly, the larger size of the cities did not simply indicate that a larger number of people lived there but also the fact that they contained many monumental structures like temples, palaces, etc. The people who lived in these structures exercised political or economic or religious authority. No wonder, the seals which are considered marks of the authority of traders, priests or administrators are found in the largest numbers in Mohenjodaro where the largest number of monumental structures have also been found.

Q. Which of the Harappan religious structures indicate the prevalence of some collective worship or rituals?
A.   A number of large buildings in the citadel and the lower town at Mohenjodaro are believed to have been temples of gods. In the lower city at Mohenjodaro a large the building has been discovered with monumental entrance and a double stairway leading to, a raised platform on which was found a stone sculpture 161/2 inches high. Another important structure found In Mohenjodaro which seems to have had some ritual significance is 'The Great Bath'. Hence, Big temple-like structures with a
number of sculptures, common baths, assembly halls, structures with a number of
fire pits, etc

Q. Do we get any evidence of fire worship from Harappan finds?
A.  The Harappans at Kalibangan and Lothal seem to have followed different religious practices. At Kalibangan in the citadel were found a series of raised brick platforms crowned with 'fire altars' i.e., a series of brick-lined pits containing ash and animal bones. This area also had a well and bathing places. This complex seems to have represented some kind of ritual center where animal sacrifice, ritual ablution and some sort of fire rituals were performed. Many houses in the lower town also
contained a room having 'fire altars'.

Q. What significant points emerge from the study of the burial practices of Harappan sacrifice?
A.  The most significant point is that burying the dead was accompanied by some rituals. It-appears that the Harappans believed in some sort of life after death because a number of items of everyday use or ornaments are also placed alongside the dead. Some times it is paired burial one male-and one female. In, some cases urns containing bones are also buried.

Unit 9

Q. Discuss in about 50 words the evidence for and against the theory of Barbarian invasions having destroyed Harappa.
A. Some scholars believed that the Harappan civilization was destroyed by the Aryan invaders. They point towards massacre at some places due to findings of human skeletons lying on the streets. These scholars refer to Rig Veda where it was mentioned that the fortresses of the Dasas and Dasyus were destroyed by The Vedic god Indra. The geographical area of the habitation of the Rig Vedic Aryans included Punjab and the Ghaggar-Hakra region. Since there are no remains of other cultural groups having forts in this area in this historical phase, scholars believed that it was the Harappan cities that were being described in the Rig Veda. In fact, the Rig Veda mentions a place called Hariyupiya. This place was located on the bank of the river Ravi. The Aryans fought a battle here. The name of the place sounds very similar to that of Harappa. These evidence led scholars to conclude that it was the
Aryan invaders who destroyed the cities of Harappa. This theory was rejected by some scholars on the basis that the provisional date for the decline of the Harappan civilization is believed to be 1800 B.C. The Aryans, on the other hand, are believed to have arrived here not earlier than a period around 1500 B.C. and so, the Harappans and the Aryans are unlikely to have met each other. The evidence of the human bodies lying exposed in the streets could have been caused by raids by bandits from the surrounding hilly tracts.

Q. Write in about 50 words about the importance of what has survived from Harappa.
A. The cults of Pasupati (Siva) and of the mother goddess and phallic worship seem to have come down to us from the Harappan tradition. Similarly, the cult of sacred places, rivers or trees, and sacred animals seems to have continued from the historic civilization of India. The evidence of fire worship and sacrifice in Kalihgan and Lothal is still prevalent. Many aspects of domestic life like the house plans, disposition of water supply and attention to bathing continued in the subsequent periods. The traditional weight and currency system of India, based on a ratio of sixteen as the unit, was already present in the Harappan civilization. The techniques of making potter's wheel in modern India are similar to those used by the Harappans. Bullock carts and boats used in modem India were already present in the Harappan cities.

EHI - 01(10th Part)

Tenth Part

Q. Why was the Non Cooperation movement suspended ?

A.  As far as the peasants were concerned the Non-Cooperation Movement was gradually turning into a no-rent movement against the Zamindars. But the Congress leadership was in no way interested in attacking the legal rights of the Zamindars. Gandhi's aim was of a "controlled mass movement" involving different Indian classes, and not a class revolution. So he was against the continuation of this movement which might turn into a class revolution. He made it quite clear that he was against any kind of violent or radical movement at that stage. If the movement was not suspended it might have led to chaos because the leadership had no control over local movements. The Chauri Chaura incident proved his fears to be correct and thus had forced him to withdraw the movement.

Q.  Discuss the impact of Non-Cooperation Movement in Indian History .
A.  In spite of its failure the Non-Cooperation Movement has great significance in 1ndian history not only in relation to political spheres but in terms of social aspects too. Gandhi emphasized the need of removing evils like caste, Communalism, untouchability etc. In the processions, meetings and in jails people of all castes and communities worked together and even ate together. This weakened the caste differences and accelerated the pace of social mobility and reforms .

Q.  List the main evils against which the Sikh Social Reformers fought

A.  The main evils in society against which reformers fought were caste restriction, worship of tombs and graves, worship of many Gods, illiteracy, dowry system, barter of daughters in marriages and female infanticide.

Q.  What is Anand Karaj marriage? Who supported this form of marriage?

A.  Anand Karaj marriage (joyous deed) is the simplest form of marriage . Baba Dayal a contemporary of Maharaja Ranjit Singh, was the first among the reformers in Sikh religion, who condemned the social evil practices in Sikh society. Baba Dayal disapproved the worship of idols and graves . He also introduced a simplified version of marriage named Anand Karaj (joyous deed) which got legal recognition with the passage of the Anand Marriage Act in 1909 . Under this system, marriage is performed in the presence of the Guru Granth, by singing four relevant hymns from this holy book of the Sikhs by priest . No other rituals art performed and dowry, marriage procession, drinking and dancing are disapproved. After Dayal baba death in 1855, his son Baba Darbara Singh and after Darbara Singh death his brother Rattan Chand continued the tradition .

Q.  What is the significance of Kuka Movement?

A.  The Namdhari movement, popularly known as the Kuka movement was started by Bhagat Jawahar Mal and Baba Balak Singh, the movement became a powerful instrument of socio- religious awakening among the Sikhs under Baba Ram Singh. Ram Singh enjoined upon his followers to worship of one God through prayer and meditation. He preached against social evils such as the caste system. female infanticide, early marriage and barter of daughters in marriage. He also popularized simple and inexpensive Anand marriages. The teachings of Baba Ram Singh, had a wide appeal among Sikh masses. Though Baba Ram Singh's mission was marked for its teachings of righteous living, toleration and mercy, some of his followers got out of control and, in a fit of religious frenzy, committed excesses which resulted in a clash with the Government. Some of his more fanatic followers who got excited over the killing of cows, murdered the butchers at Amritsar, Rajkot and Malerkotla. As a punishment, they were blown off from the cannon's mouth, the official action against the Kukas created great hatred for British rule in the minds of the people in Punjab. This helped in preparing the ground for the subsequent struggle of the Akalis in the early twentieth century against the British .

Q.  What was the contribution of Singh Sabha Movement in the field of education?

A.  The year following the persecution of the Kukas and the suppression of their movement saw the birth of the Singh Sabha (1873 A.D). The Singh Sabha movement and its activities had a much wider appeal among the Sikh masses and, consequently, made a far greater impact. The promoters of the Singh Sabha movement, most of whom belonged to the educated middle class, were connected with other socio-religious movements in Punjab as well. They believed that social evils among the Sikhs were due to lack of education among them. The Singh Sabha aimed mainly at social and religious reform through the spread of Education.

         The major contribution of the Singh Sabha leadership lay in the creation of a network of Khalsa schools, colleges and other centers of learning. Educational activities of the Singh Sabha received support and patronage from the Government of India and the British officials and the rulers of the Sikh princely states that the Khalsa College was founded at Amritsar in 1892.

Q.  List the main evils prevailing in the Sikh shrines under Sarbarahs.

1)  The Sarbarahs which were appointed by government indulged in all sorts of evil practices, such as misappropriation of offerings and other valuables. The sanctity of these places was destroyed. Here brothels were run, pornographic literature sold, and innocent women visiting the temples were raped.They began to convert the trust property of the Gurdwara into their personal possessions. The Mahants and their followers began to live a life of luxury and started indulging in various social evils.

2)  The misuse of temple premises by anti social corrupt elements was common and tacitly supported by Sarbarahs. On Basant and Holi festivals the whole place degenerated into a hunting ground for the local rogues, thieves and other bad characters, much to the anger and pain of the disciples .

3) While Sikh religion does not recognise any caste distinctions, the priests in charge of the Golden Temple did not allow members of the so-called low-castes, known as Mazhabi Sikhs to offer their prayers in the temple directly. They had to hire an attendant of the so-called higher-caste to carry their offering of Prasad in the Temple.

Q   Describe how the low caste p&ople were discriminated against in religious matters?

A.  While Sikh religion does not recognize any caste distinctions, the priests in charge of the Golden Temple did not allow members of the so-called low-castes, known as Mazhabi Sikhs to offer their prayers in the temple directly. They had to hire an attendant of the so-called higher-caste to carry their offering of Prasad in the Temple. As a result of socio-religious awakening created by various movements of reform among the Sikh community the Khalsa Biradri of Amritsy advocated free integration of the members of the so-called low-castes, including community dining and inter-marriages. As the priests of the Golden Temple did not allow the members of the so-called low-castes, to enter the temple and offer Prasad themselves, the Khalsa Biradri thought of creating public

awareness on the subject and defy the authority of the priests.

Q.  Why were the Sarbarahs not paying attention to the opinion of the Sikh Community in managing the shrines?

A.  The appointment of Sarbarah by the Government created more problems. The Sarbarah did not feel responsible towards the people but was busy pleasing his appointing authority the Deputy Commissioner of Amritsar. The priests indulged in all sorts of evil practices, such as misappropriation of offerings and other valuables. The sanctity of these places was destroyed. Here brothels were run, pornographic literature sold, and innocent women visiting the temples raped. With the weakening of the Sikh control over the management and the increasing hold of officialdom, the manager and priests started taking their cue from the Deputy Commissioner and ignored Sikh opinion and sentiments in the day-to-day affairs of the temple. The Government appointed Sarbarah, after ensuring that the appointing authority was pleased, spent his time in appropriating the wealth belonging to the shrine and neglected his daily religious duties. Costly gifts to the temple slowly found their way to the homes of the Sarbarah and other priests.

Q.  What led to the tragedy at Nankana?

A.  After taking control of the Golden Temple and the Akal Takht at Amritsar the reformers paid their attention to other Sikh Gurdwaras. In Nankana, the birth-place of Gum Nanak Dev , Gurdwara Janam Asthan and other shrines were being controlled by hereditary Mahants. Narain Dass who was incharge of the Gurdwara Janam Astha at Nankana was practising a number of social & religious evils. He kept a mistress, invited dancing girls into the Gurdwara & permitted profane singing in the holy premises. In spite of protest from different Sikh circles the Mahant did not abandon the evil practices. Accordingly, a Jatha of 130 reformers including some women proceeded to Gurdwara Janam Asthan under the leadership of Bhai Lachhman Singh. When the Jatha reached the Gurdwara in the early hours of February 20, 1921 the Mahant & the mercenaries hired by him attacked these armless,peaceful reformers. A number of marchers were killed and the wounded were tied to the trees and burnt. In order to destroy the evidence the Mahant and his men collected all the bodies and put them to fire. The barbaric killing of all the 130 members of the Jatha by the Mahant sent waves of shock and resentment throughout the country. Mahatma Gandhi and other national leaders condemned this brutal action of the Mahant. Mahatma Gandhi visited Nankana on 3rd March to express sympathy with the Akali reformers condemned the action of the Mahant and advised the Akali reformers to offer non-cooperation to the Government in the matter of official commission of enquiry. It was on the advice of Mahatma Gandhi and other national leaders that the Akali reformers decided to broaden their movement. They launched a two pronged attack. It was directed against the corrupt Mahant on the one hand and the Punjab government on the other.

Q.  How did the, Akali Movement come into contact with the National Movement?

A.  During the Nankana tragedy explained above and afterwards Toshakhana Key's Affair Akali Movement come into contact with the National Movement Toshakhana Key's Affair The Akali reformers had taken control of the Golden Temple and the Akal Takht at Arnritsar, and appointed a Committee for the management of these two shrines. The Committee asked the government-appointed manager of the Golden Temple to handover the keys of the Toshakhana (treasury) to the committee. But before the manager came to do so the keys were taken away by the British Deputy Commissioner. This action of the government created great resentment in the Sikh community. To get

back the keys the Akali reformers launched a powerful agitation which is popularly known as the Keys Affair. In this agitation the Sikh reformers were also joined by the Congress volunteers in Punjab. The coming together of Congress and Akali thus combined their strength for the national cause .

Q.  What was the key's affair? Why did the British Govenunent surrender on this issue?

A.  After obtaining the control of Golden Temple the Akalis demanded that the keys to its treasury be handed over to them. The British surrendered the demand because they were facing the Non-cooperation movement of Congress and wanted to isolate Akalis from it. The Akali reformers had taken control of the Golden Temple and the Akal Takht at Arnritsar, and appointed a Committee for the management of these two shrines. The Committee asked the government-appointed manager of the Golden Temple to handover the keys of the Toshakhana (treasury) to the committee. But before the manager came to do so the keys were taken away by the British Deputy Commissioner. This action of the government created great resentment in the Sikh community. To get back the keys the Akali reformers launched a powerful agitation which is popularly known as the Keys Affair. In this agitation the Sikh reformers were also joined by the Congress volunteers in Punjab. The coming together of Congress and Akali thus combined their strength for the national cause . Since Mahatma Gandhi's non-cooperation movement was already going on, the Punjab Government thought of isolating the Akali reformers from the congress program of non-cooperation by releasing all the Akali volunteers arrested in connection with the agitation over the keys affair and returning the keys of the Golden temple treasury to the President of the committee. This victory of the Akali reformers was seen by the national leaders as a victory of the forces of nationalism.

Q.  What was the attitude of Indian National Congress towards the Akali struggle in Nabha?

A.  Indian National Congress supported the Akali demand in Nabha and sent special Observers. Victories of the Akali reformers in two agitations, the keys Affair and the Guru-ka-Bagh, greatly raised the power and prestige and morale of the Akali leadership. In their hour of victory they launched another agitation and demanded the restoration of Maharaja Ripudaman Singh of Nabha to his throne from which he had been forcibly removed by the British Govt. This issue was not directly related with the Akali movement whose chief concern so far had been social and religious reforms. But since by now the Akali reformers had emerged as a powerful expression of the nationalist protest in the province, the Congress leadership supported them in their agitation in Nabha. At a special session of the Congress Working Committee held at New Delhi in September 1923 the Congress decided to send Jawaharlal Nehru, A.T. Gidwani and K. Santhanam as observers to visit Nabha and report on the situation there to the Congress Working Committee. Nehru and his colleagues were arrested soon after entering the Nabha territory and put behind the bars on flimsy charges.

Q.   How did the passing of the Gurdwara Act in 1925 democratize the administration of the Sikh shrines?What led to the passage of Gurdwara Act.

A.  With the passing of the Gurdwara Act of 1925, every Sikh irrespective of caste and creed could get elected to the SGPC to administer the shrines. Women also got right to Vote. The movement also created a great religious and political awakening among the people. They were made to realize that there was no religious sanction in the Sikh tradition for practicing caste. According to the Gurdwara Act, any Sikh irrespective of his caste can be elected to any position including that of the President of SGPC. During their agitation in Nabha the Akalis faced toughest opposition from the British administrator of Nabha and Maharaja Bhupinder Singh, the Sikh ruler of the princely state of Patiala. As a result of firing over the Shahidi Jatha at Jaito in February 1924 the agitation again took a serious turn. The Akali agitation was likely to affect the Sikh soldiers Bri tish army . Moreover through the Akali agitation Congress program and ideology were spreading to the Sikh peasantry in Punjab. The presence of these factors compelled Punjab Government to find a solution to Akali problem by passing a Bill in July 1925 which gave the Sikh community a legal right to elect functionaries to manage their Gurdwaras. This legislation put an end to the hereditary control of the Mahants and intrbduced democratic control in the gurdwara management. And with this ended the five year long Akali agitation in Punjab.

Q.   List three main achievements of the Akali Movement.

A.   The achievements like doing away of caste restrictions, end of misuse of people's money, cleaning of Gurdwaras from anti-social elements, and end to hereditary Mahant system, which created social and political consciousness.

EHI - 01(9th Part)

Ninth Part

Q.  Discuss the background against which the Indian Councils Act of 1892 was passed.

A.  From the point of view of the Govt. the Act of 1861 was working satisfactorily. But the period which followed saw a remarkable growth of national consciousness in India. Although there wasn’t any challenge emanating to the grip of government still a feeling was rapidly developing that the people inhabiting the country had common interests, aspirations and destiny. Lord Dufferin was the Governor-General when the Indian National Congress was founded. During his tenure the Government of India vigorously pursued with the Govt. at London the question of enlarging the size and functions of the Central and provincial Legislative Councils.

           The demand of these nationalist leaders was that India should be ruled in the interest of Indian people. On the other hand, the primary objective of the Government of lndia was to safeguard and further British imperial interests. In this situation, the British needed to enlarge the basis for their support in India & they could do this by satisfying the aspirations of those Indians who were ready to confine their demands within a narrow constitutional framework. By introducing changes in the constitutional structure dissatisfaction of educated Indians could be obviated without adversely affecting Government's all-embracing autocracy. It was with this objective that a new Indian Councils Act was passed in 1892.

Q.  What were the main provisions of the Act of 1892?

A.  The Indian Councils Act of 1892 was an amending Act while the basic constitutional provisions remained the same as under the Act of 1861, but two types of changes were introduced:

i ) Changes in the composition of legislative bodies

ii) Enlargement of functions

The number of Additional Members of the Central Executive CounciI was increased to not less than ten nor more than sixteen of whom, as under the Act of 1861, not less than half were to be non-officials. Under the Regulations finally adopted, the Central Legislative Council was to consist of nine ex-officio members (the Governor-General, six members of the Executive Council, the Commander-in-Chief and the head of the province ie which the Council met, i.e. Lieutenant Governor of Bengal or Punjab),,six official Additional Members and ten nonofficial members of the Legislative Councils of Bengal, Bombay, Madras and the North-Western Province. The official members together with the ex-officio members constituted an official majority.

            So far as the functions were concerned, besides discussing legislative proposals, the members were allowed to discuss the annual Financial Statement presented by the Govt. However, the Financial Statement was presented as an unalterable document. Members could only present their.observations which could have influence on the budget in subsequent years, not on the budget of the year under consideration. In the case of provinces the discussion was limited to those branches of revenue and expenditure which were under the control of Provincial Governments. The members were also allowed to put questions on internal matters. Supplementary questions were not allowed. In spite of this limitation it was a significant innovation because even in the British House of Commons

till that time Question Hour had not fully evolved.

Q.  What were the two aims of the Government in introducing the so-called Constitutional Reforms of 1909?

A.  The two aims of the government were -

i)  to strengthen the Raj by rallying the moderates to the empire

ii)  to encourage divisions amongst politically active Hindus and Muslims

              It soon became obvious that the Government of India was not able to achieve either of these objectives. Initially the Moderate leaders were satisfied and set themselves to work enthusiastically. Earlier they had captured the Congress at Surat in 1907 yet the fact remains that within the Congress their role became steadily less important. After the pact between the Moderates and the Extremists in 1916, the Moderates steadily moved to the fringes of the freedom struggle and ceased to play a central role.

                 The Government also did not succeed in keeping the politically active Hindus and Muslims

Apart on national issues , thus eroding the moral right of Alien government to continue. Both the communities tend to vote together on national issues like fiscal autonomy for India, state control of railways, abolition of cotton excise duties, demand for more expenditure on education etc.

Q.  Discuss the circumstances leading to the Morley-Minto 'Reforms'?

A.  Above answer

Q.  What were the main features of the Morley-Minto 'Reforms?

A.  Like the earlier lndian Council Act of 1892, the Act of 1909(Morley-Minto) was also an amending Act. Like its predecessor, it also introduced changes in the size and functions of the Councils of the Governor-General and Governors for the purpose of making Laws and Regulations.

1)  This Act increased the strength of the Central as well as Provincial Councils. The number of additional members in the Central Council was increased to sixty while the number of additional members in Provincial Councils was to be between thirty and fifty. This number does not include the ex officio members. The additional members were to be of two kinds-official & nod-official. At the Center, the official members(including ex-oficio members) were to be in a majority. In the provincial legislatures non-official majorities were conceded. This was done because of the understanding that the non-official members would represent such diverse interests and classes that it would be difficult for them to take a joint stand. Moreover, if the eventuality of their passing an undesirable bill did come UR, these bills could conveniently be vetoed.

2)  The system of separate electorate for Muslims was introduced in 1909 act. The aim of the Government in giving preferential treatment to the Muslims was not to correct imbalances in Indian society but to bind some Muslim leaders to the Government with 'silken chains of gratitude’. Muslims were to be elected by separate electorates the electorates consisting of Muslims only. Separate registers were prepared containing the names of Muslim voters only. Muslims were also given weightage i.e. more seats were given to them than the number warranted by their proportion in the local population. They were also given the right to compete on equal terms with the other communities in the general electorates.The whole idea behind this move was to create a wedge between two communities .

Q.  What prompted the government to make the Declaration in August 1917?

A. There were certain reasons that prompted the government to make the declaration in August 1917.

1)  By 1916 all parties in India as well as Britain began to think that some changes in the structure of the Government of India were necessary. This was largely the result of the conditions produced by the outbreak of the World War in August, 1914. The war did not pose any immediate threat to India. But being part of the British Empire, India became automatically involved. Thereafter, India made ungrudging contribution to the war effort and supplied manpower, money and material. Because of the help given on a crucial occasion, expectations of Indians increased. It was not that they wanted reward for having served the rulers. Actually fighting shoulder to shoulder with European soldiers had given new self-confidence to the Indians. They wanted a recognition of their ability to rule

themselves. This aspiration was reinforced by the ideas generated during the war.

2)  After the Morley-Minto Reforms, Muslims did not become supporters of the Government. In fact the gulf between the Muslims and the government become steadily wider. Many factors were responsible for this. In December, 191 1 Partition of Bengal was revoked. This step alienated the Muslim political elite. In 1912 Lord Harding's government rejected the proposal relating to the establishment of the University of Aligarh. In 1913 there were riots in Kanpur when a platform adjoining a mosque was demolished. Outside India Britain had refused to help Turkey in Italian and Balkan Wars (191 1-13). Gradually the Muslim League accepted the goal of self-government for India. The Muslim League decided to enter into negotiations with the Congress to formulate a scheme for the future Government of India.

3)  Around the same time Mrs. Annie Besant, who till then had confined her activities only to religious matters, started a Home Rule League. Tilak had been released from Jail in 1914. He started another Home Rule League at Pune. These Leagues worked with great enthusiasm and carried on intense propaganda in favor of Home Rule or self-government for India after the War by means of discussion groups, lecture tours and mass sale of pamphlets.The formation of the leagues put immense pressure on government to work on reforms .

4)  Russia. In the meanwhile, at Lucknow, the Moderates and the Extremists, as also the Home Rulers and the Muslim League, came together and unanimously adopted the agreement known as the Lucknow Pact (Dec. 1916). They also jointly prepared a scheme of constitutional reforms. The devolution of increased political power and responsibility on the Indians was simply a response to political pressure in India. It was a device to buy support of Indians during war.

Q.  What were the basic features of the Montagu-Chelmsford Scheme?

A. 1)  The chief executive authority remained vested in the Governor-General who remained responsible to the British Parliament through the Secretary of State and not to the Indian Legislature. The constitution of Governor-General's executive Council was slightly modified while substantial changes were made in the composition of the Indian Legislature. But it was made clear that the aim was not to increase its powers but merely to make it more representative and increase opportunities of influencing the Government. The Act provided for a bicameral legislature at the center. The two Houses were the Council of State and the Legislative Assembly.

2)  The power of the Governor-General was extended. In addition to the power to veto any bill, the Governor-General was given the power of certification also, i.e. he could secure the enactment of a bill whose passage in the form considered to be necessary was refused by the legislature. He could do so by certifying that the bill was essential for the safety, tranquility or interests of British India or any part thereof. The scope of interrogative functions was enlarged by extending the right to put supplementary questions to all the members.

3)  Under the Government of India Act of 1919 responsibility for certain functions of the Government in the provinces was transferred while control over others was reserved in British hands. Under this division the subjects were divided into two halves called 'Reserved' and 'Transferred'. Accordingly the provincial government was also to consist of two halves. The Governor and the members of his Executive Council were to administer the reserved subjects. The transferred subjects were to be administered by the Governor acting with ministers. This novel distribution of executive powers in the provinces came to be known as 'dyarchy'.

Q.  What were the problems in the working of dyarchy?

A.  The whole conception of dyarchy was based on a faulty principle. It is very difficult to divide the functions of a state into water-tight compartments. The problem was confounded by the illogical division. While agriculture was a transferred subject, land revenue and, irrigation were resewed subjects.

            A system like this could work if there was basic trust between the two halves.While ministers were there to further the interests of their countrymen, the members of the Executive Council and generally of the civil service were there to safeguard British imperial interests. Ministers had no control over civil servants even in the 'transferred' departments. The secretaries of departments had direct access to the Governor which placed the members in a disagreeable position. Further, the minister had to serve two masters. He was appointed by the Governor and could be dismissed by him. But he was accountable to the legislature. Above all, the so-called nation-building departments were

entrusted to ministers who could show results only if money was available. The ministers complained that the reserved departments got all the money they wanted before requirements of transferred departments were considered.

Q.  What was the Khilafat issue ?

A.  During the First World War Turkey allied with Germany and Austria against the British. The Indian Muslims regarded the Sultan of Turkey as their spiritual leader Khalifa. After the war, the British removed the Khalifa from power in Turkey. Hence, the Muslims started the Khilafat movement in India for the restoration of the Khalifa's position. Their main demands were:-

#  Khalifa's control should be retained over the Muslim sacred places

#  In territorial adjustments after the war the Khalifa shud be left with sufficient territories. The Khilafat issue was not directly linked 'with politics in India but the Khilafat leaders were eager in enlisting the support of Hindus. Gandhi saw in this an opportunity to bring 1919-1922 about Hindu-Muslim unity against the British.The Central Khilafat Committee met at Allahabad from 1st to 3rd June i920(Gandhi was the president ). The meeting was attended by a number of Congress and Khilafat leaders. In this meeting a program of non-cooperation towards the Government was declared. This was to include:

#  boycott of titles conferred by the Government,

#  boycott of civil services, army aad police, i.e. all government jobs,and

#  non payment of taxes to the Government

Q.  What was the program of the Non-Cooperation Movement?

A.  The programm of the Non-Cooperation Movement had two main aspects:

i) constructive and

ii) destructive.,

Under the first category came:

# the nationalization of education,

# the promotion of indigenous goods,

# the popularization of charkha and Khadi, and

# the enrollment of a volunteer corps.

In the later category figured the boycott of: .

# law courts,

# educational institutions,

# elections to the legislature,

# official functions,

# British goods as well as the surrender of honors and titles conferred by the British.

           The campaign for non-cooperation and boycott started with great enthusiasm from early 1921. In the first phase from January to March 1921, the main emphasis was on the boycott of schools, colleges, law courts & the use of Charkha. There was widespread student unrest and top lawyers like C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru gave up their legal practice.

            This phase was followed by the second phase starting from April 1921. In this phase the basic objectives were the collection of Rs. one crore for the Tilak Swaraj Fund by August 1921, enrolling one crore Congress members and installing 20 lakh Charkhas by 30 June.

            In the third phase, starting from July, the stress was on boycott of foreign cloth, boycott of the forth coming visit of the Prince of Wales in November, 1921, popularization of Charkha and Khadi and Jail Bharo by Congress volunteers.

            In the last phase, between November 1921, a shift towards radicalism was visible. The Congress volunteers rallied the people and the country was on the verge of a revolt. Gandhi decided to launch a no revenue campaign at Bardoli, and also a mass civil disobedience movement for freedom of speech, press and association. But the attack on a local police station by angry peasants at Chauri Chaura, in Gorakhpur district of U.P., on 5th February 1922, changed the whole situation. Gandhi, shocked by this incident, withdrew the Noncooperation Movement.

Q.   Discuss in brief the response of the peasantry to the Non-Cooperation Movement.

A.   The most important landmark of this movement was the massive participation of the peasants and workers in it. The long-standing grievances of the peasants against the British, as well as the Indian masters came to the forefront during this movement. In rural areas and some other places, the peasants turned against the landlords and the traders. This gave a new dimension to the movement of 1921-22.

Bengal -   The villagers in Midnapur district opposed the newly created Union Boards and the tax imposed by them.The people refused to pay taxes or agricultural rent to the Government or private landlords in the outlying districts of North Bengal.

Bihar - In Bihar the local issue of the right to graze cattle on common government wastelands and the confrontation between the "lower and upper castes" on the issue of the former taking the sacred thread got merged with the Non-Cooperation Movement. The issues of cow protection and the rights of Kisans were also focused upon. Because of this linkage, North Bihar, especially Champaran, Saran, Muzaffarpur and Purnia districts, became the storm centers of the movement by November 1921. Hut (village market) looting and confrontation with the police became frequent.

UP -  In the countryside it took a different form. Here the movement got entangled with the kisan movement. Despite the repeated appeal for non-violence from the congress leadership, the peasants rose in revolt not only against Talukdara but also, against merchants. Between January and March 1921 the districts of Rae Bareli, Pratapgarh, Fyzabad and Sultanpur witnessed widespread agrarian riots under the leadership of Baba Ram Chandra. The major a demands were:

# no nazarana (extra premium on rent)

# no eviction from holdings, and

# no begar (forced labor) and rasad (forced supplies). etc.

   In late 1921 there was another strong peasant outburst which is known as the 'Eka' movement under a radical leader Madari Pasi. The basic demand here was the conversion of produce rents into cash. Another significant event was the destruction of thousands of acres of reserved forests in the Kumaon Division in July 1921 by the hill-tribes as they disliked the forest regulations.

Andhra - In Andhra the grievances of tribal and other peasants against forest laws got linked to the Non-Cooperation Movement. A large number of these people met Gandhi in Cudappa in September 192 1 to get their taxes reduced and forest restrictions removed. Forest officials were boycotted. To assert their right they sent their cattle forcibly,into the forests without paying the grazing tax. The Non-Cooperation Movement attained great success in the Andhra delta area. In the same period Alluri Sitaram Raju organised the tribals in Andhra and combined their demands with those of the Non-Cooperation Movement.