EHI - 02

4th Part 

Unit 18

Q. Magadha was surrounded by the following three kingdoms:

A. Anga, Vajji Confederacy, Kassi

Q. Describe the important sources for reconstructing the history of Magadha

A. Some of the most important texts available are well preserved in early Buddhists and Jain literature. Buddhist texts like the Tripitikas and the Jatakas and Jain texts Acaranga Sutra and Sutrakritanga shed vital information regarding Magadha. Later Buddhist chronicles like the Mahavamsa and Dipavamsa compiled in Sri Lanka are significant sources for the events related particularly to Asoka Maurya's reign. Divyavadana (which is preserved outside India in the Tibetan and Chinese Buddhist sources) also provides information. Other important sources are

Arthashastra written by Chanakya and books by Greek writers like Megasthenes, Strabo, Diodorus, and Arrian.

Q. List three important factors that were advantageous for the growth of the Magadhan kingdom.

A. 1) Magadh lies close to the iron mineral area thus has an abundant supply of iron ore required for good production of weapons and agricultural implements. It facilitated the expansion of the agrarian economy and thereby. the generation of substantial

surplus, extracted by the State in the form of taxes. This, in turn, enabled them to expand and develop their territorial base.

2) Magadha lies on the most fertile alluvial soil thus agriculture production was immensely creating an economic boost to the economy.

3) Pataliputra became the capital of Magadha under the Mauryas. This enabled Magadha to effectively command the uttarapatha (northern route) which lay to the north of the river Ganges, along the foothills of the Himalayas. The river also came to be used as one of the main arteries connecting Magadha with different regions and making heavy transport along the river possible.

Q. To what extent do you think that the Nanda rule in Magadha was significant?

A. The Nandas are described as the first empire-builders of India. They overthrew all the contemporary ruling houses and thus usurped more areas and brought them under Magadha control. Nandas had contact with the Deccan and South India. Their control of some parts of Kalinga (modem Orissa) is indicated in the Hathigumpha inscription of king Kharavela, who ruled in Orissa from the middle of the first century B.C. Inscriptions from the south Kamataka region suggest that parts of the Deccan were also included in the Magadhan empire under the Nandas. Thus under the reign of Mahapadma Nanda the first phase of the expansion and consolidation of the Kingdom of Magadha took place.

Q. Write a note on why there was a change in the policy of conquest under Asoka?

A. Asoka himself in Rock Edict 13 described his conquest of Kalinga which took place eight years after his consecration, around 260 B.C. In this war, the Kalingans were completely routed "One hundred thousand were slain, and many times that number died." Though on the battlefield Asoka, was victorious, the inscription goes on to describe his remorse which then ultimately turned him towards Dhamma. A policy of conquest through the war was given up and replaced by a policy of conquest through Dhammavijaya.

Unit 19

Q. List the material changes that took place in the Ganges Valley under the Mauryas in about four lines.

A.  Some of the material changes that took place were -

1) Improvement of technology

2) Increased circulation of coins

3) Increase in urbanization

4) Use of bricks

Improvement in technology - During this period there was an improvement of technology in construction, burnt bricks, timber structures excavated gives testimony to it. Similarly, the use of iron tools in clearing dense forests and other iron tools like socketed axes, sickles, and plowshares improved the agricultural output significantly.

Increased urbanization - With the agricultural surplus economy improved significantly and thus new social class emerged which was not directly involved in agriculture but in trading. This social class of merchants and traders lived in towns thus increasing

the pace of urbanization.

Increase circulation of coins - Magadha facilitated trade within the country and also abroad. This increase in trading was supported by the increased frequency of coins which were minted by state. Due to the close proximity to silver, gold mines, coins were minted in silver, gold, and copper as proved through excavations.

Q Matching words
A Janapadanivesa -------------- Process of Settlement
Sitadhyaksa --------------- Official in Crown lands
Gahapati ---------------- Landed gentry
Samaharta ---------------- Revenue Assessor

Q. Which tax was collected only in cash in Magadha
A  Hiranya

Q. List the fiscal measures which were expected to be adopted by the State during periods of emergency.

A. Different kinds of taxes can be imposed during an emergency like the levy of pranaya which literally meant a gift of affection. It amounted to 1/3 or 1/4 of the products according to the nature of the soil. It is usually interpreted as a voluntary gift but once put into practice, in reality, it must have become obligatory. Further,in times of emergency, the cultivators could be forced to raise two crops.

Q. List the main taxes and revenue officials of the Mauryan period.

A. Some of the taxes were

1) Land tax (Bhaga) was the main item of revenue. According to the texts, it was levied at the rate of 1/6th of the produce.

Pindakara - The peasants paid a tax called pindakara paid by husbandmen, which was assessed on groups of villages. Often the villages had to supply provisions to the royal army passing through their respective territories.

Hiranya - This is another kind of tax levied which is paid in cash, as the hiranya literally means gold

Bali - It is the traditionally known levy from the Vedic times, continued under the Mauryas.

Pranaya - It is the tax which was levied during the emergency. It amounted to 1/3 or 1/4 of the produce according to the nature of the soil. It is usually interpreted as a voluntary gift but once put into practice, in reality, it must have become obligatory. Further, in times of emergency, the cultivators could be forced to raise two crops. The Mauryas attached great importance to the assessment of land revenue and the highest officer in charge of this was the samaharta. The sannidhata was the chief custodian of the State treasury.

Q. The official in charge of mines was called in the Arthasastra
A.  Akaradhyaksa

Q. Kautilya lists the salaries of the highest-ranking officials as 48,000
A. Panas

Q. The overall supervision of commerce in the cities was the duty of
A. Panyadhyaksa

Q. The goods produced by the State were called
A. Rajapanya

Q. Outline in brief the important trade routes in Mauryan 1ndia

A. The main trade routes in northern Indian were along the river Ganges and the Himalayan foothills. Major centers like Rajagriha in Magadha and Kausambi, near present-day Allahabad, were connected in this way. Pataliputra, the capital of the Mauryas had a particularly strategic location and was connected by river and road in all four directions. The northern route going to such sites as Sravasti and Kapilavastu was connected through the city of Vaisali. From Kapilavastu this route linked up Kalsi, Hazara.and eventually led up to Peshawar. In the south, it was connected to Central

India and in the South-east to Kalinga. This eastern route turned southwards to finally reach Andhra and Karnataka. The other part of the eastern route continued down to the Ganges delta to Tamralipti which acted as an exit point for the south and south-east. From Kausambi moving westwards another route led to Ujjain. This continued either further west to the coast of Gujarat or west south across the Narmada and was regarded as dakshinapatha (southern route). The overland route to countries of the West went via Taxila near Islamabad.

Q. To what extent did the Mauryan State interfere in commodity production and trade?

A. The State had a monopoly in certain important spheres of activity. The Arthasastra provides for a superintendent of mines called akaradhyaksa whose chief function was to look for new mines and reopen old. Apart from mining metals, another area of State monopoly was mining salt. Thus state had a monopoly over

mining and trading in mineral products. Steps to organize trade and commodity production were part and parcel of State policy. This policy was aimed at augmenting its efficiency in economic spheres of activity and its revenues. Mauryan state also manufactured goods. Different kinds of goods in different categories were looked after By officials of particular departments. These goods were called rajapanya. The State was careful to choose those areas of commodity production and trade that were essential for its functioning and yielded good revenues. Steps were taken to provide

protection to guilds to facilitate trade and collecting revenues. Similarly, steps were taken to improve irrigation facilities to improve the agricultural economy and augment state resources.

Unit 20

Q. Discuss in about ten lines the relations between the King and the Council of Ministers in the Mauryan empire.

A. The Arthasastra, as well as the Asokan inscriptions, refer to a Council of Ministers. (Mantriparishad) and its functions. The Girnar Rock Edicts of Asoka mention about the functions of the Council:

# Rock Edict 3 implies that the Parishad was expected to see that new administrative measures were carried out by different categories of officials.

# Rock Edict VI mentions that the ministers can discuss the King's policy during his absence; suggest amendments; and decide upon any important matter which the King has left to them. Yet the Council had to report its opinion to the King immediately.

The power of the Council varied from time to time, yet its primary role remained that of an advisory body. This was because the final authority vested with the King. In Arthshastra Kautilya mentions that King should consult his ministers on issues like-

# consultation on how to start the works which the state wants to undertake,

# to determine the manpower and finances involved in carrying out these works,

# to determine the areas-where the works have to be carried out, and

# finding solutions to deal with calamities, etc.

Kautilya mentions that the work should be carried out according to the majority verdict (Bhuvyist) in the council but in case the King feels that the majority verdict will not be able to achieve the goal, he should decide according to his own thinking.

Q. On what basis we can say that the Mauryan city administration was well organized?

A. Megasthenes gave a vivid description of administration in Palibothra (Patliputra). This account, though different from that in the Arthasastra, helps us in understanding the city administration during this period. In this account, the city council was divided into six sub-councils or committees and each committee had five

members:

1) The first committee looked after industry and crafts. Its functions included inspection of such centers fixing the wages, etc.

2) The second committee looked after the foreigners. Its functions included; arranging for their food, stay and comfort, security, etc.

3) The third committee's work was the registration of births and deaths.

4) Looking after trade and commerce, the functions of the fourth committee included: inspection of weights and measures, controlling the market, etc.

5) The fifth committee inspected the manufactured goods, made provisions for their sale and a strict watch was kept to distinguish between new and second-hand goods.

6) The sixth committee collected taxes on the goods sold the rate being 1/10. Interestingly enough, there is no mention of such committees in the Arthasastra in spite of the well-defined plan of the city administration. However, we do find in this planning almost all the functions mentioned by Megasthenes. For example, in Arthasastra the functions of the fourth committee are performed by the Panyadhyaksha; the collection of taxes (Sixth Committee) was the responsibility of Sulkadhyaksha and registration of births and deaths were the work of Gopa. The head of the urban administration was called Nagariaka. He was assisted by two

subordinate officials - Gopa and Sthanika. Besides these, there were a host of officials whose functions have been elaborately defined. For example:

# Bandhanagaradhyaksha looked after jail.

# Rakshi i.e. the police, was to look after the security of the people.

# Work in the centers where goods were manufactured was looked after by a host of superintendents like the Lohadhyaksha, Sauvarnika, etc. The Arthasastra also refers to a variety of activities of the city administration, regulations related to them and penalties on their breach. These included:

# Sanitation and water sources

# checking adulteration,

# watch over inns, and

# precautions against fire, etc.

Q. The provincial administration was headed by -------- kumara

Q. At the village level, judicial powers were vested in --------- Gramika

Q. Discuss in about ten lines the sources of revenue and expenditure of the Mauryan state.

A. Kautilya has listed different resources from where revenue flowed into the state treasury which was looked after by an official Sannidhata.

# The cities collected revenues in the form of fines, sales tax (Sulka), exercise on sale of liquor, a kind of income tax imposed on the rich, etc. (The Arthasastra lists 21 such taxes collected by the Durga). The revenues from the rural areas were appropriated by the state in the form, of income from Crown lands (Sita), land

revenue (Bhaga) from cultivators, taxes on orchards, ferry charges, etc.

# As all the mines were under the control of the state, the mineral wealth was a regular source of income for the state.

# Taxes were levied on merchants traveling by road or waterways.

# Taxes on exports and imports, etc.

There were certain collections made directly by the state from the

people. The gamblers had to part with five percent of their winnings to the state and the merchants had to pay when their weights were tested and certified by the state officials. The state control over the armament industry and salt trade increased its

revenues. The state was also empowered to impose taxes in case of an emergency for increasing its earnings. Most of the revenue collections which went to the state treasury had their outflow in the form of expenditure on army, administration, salaries, king, etc.

The state also spend money on public works like -

# The state took considerable interest in irrigation projects like dams, ponds, canals, etc.

# There are many references to medicine men of various kinds during this period like ordinary physicians (Chikitsakah), midwives (Garbhavyadhi), etc. From Asokan inscriptions, we know that medical treatment and medicines were available to both men and animals.

3) The state also helped its citizens during natural calamities like floods, famines,, etc.

4) The Arthasastra mentions that the King should look after orphans, old unattended women, etc. To what extent these were actually carried out we do not know.

5) An important aspect of public works was the laying down and repair of roads. 

Q. List in five lines the main features of village administration.

A. The administrative units included a set up at the district level consisting of a number of villages and at the same time each village had its own administrative unit. The officials listed at the level of the district during this period were Pradeshta, Rajuka, and Yukta, the former being the overall in charge of the district. Their functions included:

# survey and assessment of land,

# tours and inspections,

# revenue collection, and

# maintaining law and order, etc.

The officials at this level were local people appointed and assisted by the villagers. Gopa and Sthanika are the two types of officers, acting as intermediaries between the district and village level administrative units. Their functions included:

# demarcating village boundaries,

# maintaining records of lands used for various purposes.

# recording income and expenditure of people, and

# recording taxes, revenues, and fines, etc.

Q. Discuss the various phases in the relations of Mauryas with other powers.

A. From the time of Chandragupta till the Empire came to an end we can divide the foreign relations of the Mauryas into two distinct phases) the initial phase or the phase of expansion

ii) the latter phase or the phase of consolidation. The initial phase was marked by a policy of securing trade routes and subjugating the Greek settlements in the north and north-west regions. The incorporation of central India gave them control over Dakshinapatha and brought them into the peninsula. It can be said that with the Kalinga War the initial phase of expansion came to an end. This phase was marked by an aggressive foreign policy. It was through war and subjugation that hostile regions were brought under control. Once the Mauryan expansion reached its limits the emphasis shifted to consolidation and having friendly relations not only with immediate neighbors but with far-off Countries. Contacts had been established with the western world and during the times of Bindusara there was a regular exchange of messengers, Strabo's account mentions Demiachos as a successor to Megasthenes in the Mauryan court.

Q. List the names of Yavana rulers mentioned in RE XIII.
A. Antiochus 2 of Syria
Ptolemy 2 of Egypt
Autigonas of Macedonia
Magas of Cyrene, and
Alexander of Epirus

Unit 21

Q. Discuss briefly the historical background against which the policy of Dhamma formulated.

A. The historical background against which the policy of Dhamma was formulated were -

Socioeconomic - The Mauryan period witnessed a change in the economic structure of society. With the use of iron, resulting in surplus production, a changeover took place from a simple rural economy to a pattern of the economy in which cities and towns also played an important part. The rise of urban centers points to a structural change in the economy requiring necessary adjustments in the society with more flexibility in social organization. The rigidity of the Brahmanical class sharpened the division within the society. The lower orders turned to the various heterodox sects

and this created social tensions. It was this situation in which emperor Asoka inherited the Mauryan throne.

Religious - The Brahmanical hold over society, assiduously built through the later the Vedic period was coming under increasing attack. The privileges of the priests, the rigidity of the caste system and the elaborate rituals were being questioned. The lower orders among the four castes began to favor the new sects. Under these

circumstances, the other religious sects appealed to the lower orders and to the emerging social classes. This further created religious tensions in society.

Polity - By the time, Asoka ascended the throne, the state system, over a period of more than two hundred years, had grown very elaborate and complex. It was characterized by:

# The political supremacy of one region (Magadha) over a vast territory which comprised many previous kingdoms, Gana-samghas, and areas where no organized states had existed before.

# Existence, within this vast territory, of various geographical regions, cultural areas, and of different faiths, beliefs and practices.

# Monopoly of force by a ruling class of which the emperor was the supreme head.

# Appropriation of a very substantial quantity of surplus from agriculture, commerce, and other sources.

# Existence of an administrative apparatus.

The complexity of the state system demanded an imaginative policy from the emperor which required minimal use of force in such a large empire having diverse forms of economy and religions. It could not have been controlled by an army alone. A more feasible alternative was the propagation of a policy that would work at an ideological level and reach out to all sections of the society. The policy of Dhamma was such an endeavor.

Q. Explain in ten lines the main principles of the policy of Dhamma

A. The principles of Dhamma were so formulated as to be acceptable to people belonging to different communities and following any religious sect. It emphasized on toleration and general behavior. Dhamma stressed on dual toleration-it

emphasized on toleration of people themselves and also toleration of their various beliefs and ideas. There is a stress on the notion of showing consideration towards slaves and servants; there is stress also on obedience to elders; generosity towards the needy, Brahmanas and Sramanas, etc. Asoka also pleaded for tolerance of different religious sects in an attempt to create a sense of harmony. The policy of Dhamma also laid stress on non-violence. Non-violence was to be practiced by giving up war and conquests and also as a restraint on the killing of animals. The policy of Dhamma also included certain welfare measures, like the planting of the trees, digging of wells, etc. Asoka attacked ceremonies and sacrifices practiced regularly on various occasions as meaningless.

Q. What is the importance of the Rock Edict X111 in the understanding of the policy of Dhamma?

A. The RE13 gives us insight information about the thought process developed by Ashoka. It has a vivid account of the horrors of the Kalinga war. It portrays he wanted to conquer the world through love and faith, he sent many missions to propagate Dhamma. Major Rock Edict X111 is of paramount importance in understanding the Asokan policy of Dhamma. The Rock Edict pleads for conquest by Dhamma instead of War. This is a logical culmination of the thought processes which began from the first Rock edict, and by conquest what is perhaps meant is the adaptation of the policy of Dhamma by a country, rather than its territorial control. The propagation of Dhamma included many measures for people's welfare. Centers for the medical

treatment of men and beasts were founded inside and outside the empire. Shady groves, wells, fruit orchards, and rest houses were laid out.

Unit 22

Q. What were the immediate administrative problems faced by the successors of Asoka.

A. The disorder that emerged in the administrative machinery after the death of Asoka is regarded as one of the important factors for the disintegration of the Mauryan empire. The immediate problem for Asoka's successors was whether to continue his policy of Dhamma and its predominance in the government. Another

related feature of the political importance of Dhamma was the existence of a large body of officials of the State called Dhammamahamattas. They had become very powerful and oppressive during the latter half of Asoka's reign. Asoka himself in

the First Separate Edict to the Mahamattas, stationed at Dhauli and Jaugada, asked them to ensure against oppression and to be just and humane.

Q. What was the crux of the problem in the administrative system of the Mauryas that caused disintegration under the later kings?

A. # Centralization of power - The nature of the Mauryan State necessitated a king of strong abilities. It was a system that required the king to be in direct touch with all aspects of the State's functionaries, Since these functionaries were ultimately held together by a power structure with the king at its center, once the

king became weak, the whole administration naturally weakened. Once the center became weak, the provinces too started breaking away.

# Personal loyalty of officials - The officials of the State were personally selected by the king and owed loyalty only to him. Once weak rulers came and ruled for a short duration of time, it resulted in an overwhelming number of new officials constantly emerging and owing only personal loyalty to their respective kings and not to the State. Under such circumstances, it was local rulers and princes who were earlier subdued under the Mauryan empire found it easy to emerge with these traditional ties to support them, as important centers of power. The provincial governments under the later Maurayas thus increasingly began to question the Central authority.

# The Mauryan bureaucracy was under stress and strain resulting in an inefficient administration unable to maintain social order in general.

# The extremely complex system of spies employed for providing information on erring officials had worked efficiently till Ashoka, but it collapsed under later Mauryan kings. There was thus no means through which the kings could either gauge the public opinion in the empire or, check on the corruption.

# A conscious loosening of military control on behalf of the Mauryan kings started during the Ashokan period was also a major political reason for their decline.

Q. List the views of those scholars that advocate Asoka's policies being responsible for Mauryan decline

A. 1) Some scholars maintain that Pushyamitra Sunga, who killed the last Mauryan emperor represented a strong Brahmanical reaction against the pro-Buddhist policy of Asoka and the pro-Jain policy of some of his successors. Moreover, the Satavahanas who rose to power in the Deccan after the Mauryas were also said to have been Brahmanas. These scholars list a series of acts done

by Asoka himself which may have antagonized the Brahmanas. For example, the ban on animal sacrifices is considered one which was especially resented, since this action was taken by a Shudra King (according to the Purana accounts the Mauryas are listed as Shudras). They suggest that the Dhammamahamattas, as special officers of Dhamma appointed by Asoka, destroyed the prestige of the Brahmanas. These officials disallowed Brahmans to continue their traditional laws of punishment and other-Smriti injunctions.

2) Another group of scholars gives emphasis to Asoka's pacifist policies as a factor for Mauryan decline. They think that this was responsible for undermining the strength of the empire. This explanation focuses on Asoka's policy of ahimsa or non-violence. The harmful effect of this policy is provinces who had become

oppressive and ought to have been controlled. Non-violence on the part of the king also meant that he no longer exerted his control over officials particularly in the provinces who had become oppressive and ought to have been controlled, Citing examples from Buddhist stories in the Divyavadana , this argument goes on to show that revolts in the provinces had been taking place.

EHI - 02

3rd Part 

Block 4 (Unit 14)

Q. How have the historians combined the archaeological and literary evidence, regarding the material culture in the 6th century B.C.?

A.  The archaeological and literary sources put together to provide us with a more complete picture of the Indian society between the 6th and the 4th centuries B.C. The Vedic literature like Upanishads which was composed 800 BC onwards refer to many Janapadas and Mahajanapadas and provide us insights into the settlement of agricultural communities. Buddhist texts like Sutta Pitaka, Vinaya Pitaka, Abhidhamma Pitaka and Jataka tales part of Sutta Pitaka tell us about the preachers, princes, rich, poor and towns and villages of that period. They provided graphic descriptions of contemporary society. These texts have clear references to various regions and geographical divisions. The archaeologists also contribute to our understanding of

this period. They have dug up various places like Ahichchhatra, Hastinapur. Kausambi and Ujjaini, Sravasti, Vaisali and many more which are mentioned in the texts of this period. They have discovered the remains of the houses, buildings, towns, and objects used by the people.

Q. Write two lines each on the new groups that emerged in this period.

A. Gahapati

A Gahapati was the master of an individual household that owned land. With the emergence of agricultural society, land became an important form of wealth. As such the ruling clans of the Kshatriyas and Brahmanas brought it under their control. The Gahapatis got their land cultivated by slaves (Dasa), hired laborers (Karmakar) and Shudras Merchants

From the ranks of the Gahapatis that an important class of traders emerged. Through the sale of their products, they built up a certain amount of capital which was used for trading. The word frequently used for the trader in the Buddhist sources is Setthi, meaning 'a person having the best'. It shows that the people who dealt with money matters had acquired considerable prestige and power.

Ruler and the Ruled

Unlike before, Kings of the 6 BC indicate his rule over territory with a regular taxation system and army. There are references to Krsaka i.e. peasants who paid taxes to the king. Now the peasant and the army were not linked in any kinship tie with the Raja. The distinction was now between Raja and Praja. The Praja included people from the non-lineage groups aha. A standing army implied control over local peasantry through force and an attitude of permanent confrontation with the people and kings of the neighboring territories.

Q. Name of the rulers with the name of Mahajanapadas.

Ajatsatru -------------------------------Magadha

Pradyota ------------------------------- Avanti

Udayana ------------------------------- Vatsa

Prasenajita ----------------------------- Kosala

Q. Name of Mahajanapadas with the name of the capital

A. Kashi ------------------- Varanasi

Anga ------------------------------ Champa

Vajji ------------------------------ Vaisali

Vatsa ----------------------------- Kausambi

Unit 15

Q. What is an Urban Center. 

A. The urban center refers to a place where the most powerful and visible sections of the population are engaged in activities other than food production. The urban society is

characterized by the presence of craft specialists, rich and poor people and a state administration. The other characteristic of an urban center is that it functions in

relation to a large hinterland. The residents of the city provide administrative, economic or religious services to a population residing in an area much larger than the physical space of the city. This relationship with the population of the hinterland

is advantageous to the urban center. The residents of the city are able to harness the resources of the people living in the hinterland in the form of taxation in kind or tribute. The merchant living in the city is also able to appropriate a share of the resources of rural areas by controlling the supply of metals, minerals or some luxury items.

Unit 16

Q. What mere the main factors which influenced agricultural growth? 6BC Period

A. Some of the main causative factors which seem to have influenced agricultural growth were as follows:

1) The crucial role of iron implements in clearing the thick vegetation cover of the Ganga Plains from about 600 B.C. onwards. Cereals like rice, barley, wheat, and millets were produced over the wider areas of land.

2) Buddhists insisted on the protection of cattle and Suttanipata clearly states that they should not be slaughtered because they constituted a source of grain and strength. Thus the preservation of cattle wealth for agricultural purposes was encouraged.

3) the beginning of paddy transplantation.

4) The rice-producing economy was supplemented by domestication and hunting of animals. This was another major means of their economic life and the source of

livelihood. Archaeologists have recovered a large number of bones of cattle, sheep, goats, horses, and pigs from the number of archaeological sites. Thus, the animals

were not only used for draught and the plough of fields but a section of the society was also probably non-vegetarian.

Q. How did rural economy develop? during 6 BC (Buddha, Jain period )

A. The rural economy developed through the establishment of new settlements by shifting surplus population from the overpopulated areas, and also by rehabilitating the decaying villages. In such cases, cattle, seed, money, and irrigational facilities were given by rulers. The remission of taxes and other concessions were allowed. Retired officials and priests were granted lands in such areas. Lands in these areas

could not be sold, mortgaged or inherited. Grassland was owned in common. They had an independent internal economy. The chief occupation in the rural area remained to be agriculture. The village supplied surplus produce to the towns and the towns supplied other necessities to the villagers. Whereas agriculture was the main occupation cattle rearing and certain small crafts connected with land, forest, and animals catering to local requirements, where the

other features of the rural economy.

Q. What were the important trade routes during the period under review?

A. In those days trade, both inland and foreign was fairly brisk. Merchants traveled long distances up and down the great rivers of the country and even undertook coastal voyages to Burma and Sri Lanka from Tamluk in the east and from Broach in the west. Inland, the traders followed certain well-established routes. One of them ran from Sravasti to Pratisthana; another linked Sravasti with Rajagriha; a third

skirted along the base of the Himalayas from Taxila to Sravasti, and a fourth connected Kashi with the ports of the western coast.

Unit 17

Q. Explain the Buddhist philosophy of 'Nirvana' and 'Karma'.

A. Buddhism laid great emphasis on the law of 'karma'. According to this law, the present is determined by past actions. The condition of a man in this life and the next depends upon his own actions. Every individual is the maker of his own destiny. We are born again and again to reap the fruits of our 'karma'. If an individual has no

sins, he is not born again. Thus the doctrine of karma is an essential part of the teachings of Buddha. Buddha preached 'nirvana', the ultimate goal in the life of a man. It means the

shedding of all desires and ending of sufferings, which finally leads to freedom from rebirth. By a process of elimination of desire, one can attain 'nirvana'. Therefore, Buddha preached that the annihilation of desire is the real problem. Prayers and sacrifices will not end the desire. So unlike the emphasis on rituals and ceremonies in Vedic religion, he laid emphasis on the moral life of an individual.

Q. List the factors responsible for the growth of Buddhism.

A. Factors responsible were -

# Emphasis on practical morality, an easily acceptable solution to the problems of mankind and simple philosophy, attracted the masses towards Buddhism.

# The ideas of social equality laid down in the codes of Buddhism made many lay followers accept Buddhism.

# Merchants, like Anathirpindika, and courtesans, like Amrapali, accepted the faith because they got due respect in this religion.

# The use of popular language (Pali) to explain the doctrines also helped in the spread of the religion. This was because the Brahmanical religion had limited itself to the use of Sanskrit which was not the language of the masses.

# The patronage extended by kings was another important reason for the rapid growth of Buddhism. For example, according to tradition, Asoka sent his son Mahendra and his daughter Sangamitra to Sri Lanka to preach Buddhism. He also established many monasteries and contributed liberally to the Sangha.

# The institution of Sangha had helped to organize the spread of Buddhism effectively.

Q. What are the basic principles of Jainism?

A. Mahavira accepted most of the religious doctrines laid down by Parsvanatha. However, he made some alterations and additions to them. Parsvanatha advocated the following four principles:

b) non-violence,

c) non-possession, and

d) not to receive anything which was not voluntarily given. To this Mahavira added celibacy (brahmacharya). Mahavira believed that the soul (jiva) and matter(ajiva) are the two basic existing elements. By means of continued efforts, the soul can be relieved of bondage. This is the final liberation (moksha) of the soul. The liberated soul then becomes 'the pure soul'. According to ta Jainism, man is the creator of his own destiny and he could attain 'moksha' by pursuing a life of purity, virtue, and renunciation. Moksha (nirvana) can be attained by observing the following three principles (ratnatraya):

i) Right belief.

ii) Right knowledge, and

iii) Right action.

He advocated a life of severe asceticism and extreme penance for the attainment of 'nirvana' or the highest spiritual state. He believed that the world was not created by any supreme creator. The world functions according to an eternal law of decay and development. He thought that all objects, animate and inanimate had a soul. He believed that they feel pain or the influence of injury.

Q. Who are Ajivikas? What are their ideas?

A. The Ajivikas are said to be sudra sannyasins. The sect was said established by Nanda Vachcha, who was followed by Kisa Sankichcha. The third religious chief was Makkali Gosala, who popularised this sect. He denied the theory of 'karma' and argued that man is subject to the laws of nature. The Ajivikas believed that the thought and deed of an individual were predetermined (decided before birth). They

did not believe that there was any special cause for either the misery of human beings or for their deliverance. They did not believe in human effort and held that all creatures were helpless against destiny. Gosala maintained that all creatures had to face misery and it would end after the completion of fixed cycles. No human effort would reduce or lengthen the period.

EHI-02

2nd Part

Block 3 (Unit 10) 

Q. Discuss in about ten lines the main characteristics of the OCP culture.

A.  Ochre Coloured Pottery culture (OCP culture) was discovered during excavations in twin districts of Bisauli (Badaun district) and Rajpur Parsu (Bijnor district)UP. These were copper hoard sites. This pottery is made of medium grained clay, underfired & has a wash of ochre (which has a tendency to rub off) ranging from orange to red. Hence, those sites associated with this ware were named Ochre Coloured Pottery culture (OCP culture).

Ochre Coloured Pottery sites are generally located on river banks. These sites are small in size & the mounds have a low height at many of the sites(e.g. Bahadarabad, Bisauli, Rajpur Parsu, Saipai). This indicates a relatively short duration of these settlements. The distance between settlements varies from 5 km to 8 km. At some of the OCP sites (e.g. Ambkheri, Baheria, Bahadarabad, Jhinjhana, Lal Qila, Saipai) excavations have revealed no signs of regular habitation. The material remains of OCP culture are mostly in the form of pottery. These consist of jars (including storage jars), bowls, ring-footed bowls, flasks, handled pots, miniature pots, basins spouts, etc. Not much evidence is available regarding structures. From the evidence recorded at La1 Qila, which is scanty, it is known that

floors were made of rammed earth. The structures consisted of wattle and daub houses. This is suggested on the basis of burnt mud plaster and mud clods with reed and bamboo impressions being found at Lal Qila. Archaeobotanical remains recovered and related to this culture indicate

that rice, barley, gram, and Kesari were grown. On the basis of similarity in pottery types, some scholars believe that the OCP represented a degenerated form of the late Harappan pottery. OCP culture depending on dating existed between 2000 BC - 1500BC

Q. What are the characteristic features of BRW? Discuss in about ten lines the difference of the BRW found in. various regions.

A. Excavations at Atranjikhera in the early 1960s revealed a distinct horizon, sandwiched between OCP and PGW levels. This horizon has characteristic pottery called Black and Red Ware (BRW). A similar stratigraphic sequence has been discovered in the 1970s at Jodhpur and Noh in Rajasthan.

The characteristic features of this pottery are the black color inside and near the rim on the outside, and red color, over the rest of the body. This color combination, it is believed, has been produced by inverted firing. The pottery is mostly wheel turned, though some pots are also handmade. It is made of fine clay and has a fine fabric with thin walls. Black and Red Ware pottery with paintings have

also been found at sites in Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, and West Bengal. But in the BRW of the doab area, there is an absence of paintings. There are differences in the shape and designs of the BRW potteries found in different areas some of them are -

# The important feature of doab BRW (also of that at Noh) is its plain surface, devoid of any paintings. The BRW found at Gilund and Ahar, on the other hand, is painted in white on the black surface.

# There are also typological differences. The painted BRW from Ahar has carinated concave sides, and the fabric is coarse. The plain BRW of the doab has no carination, and the fabric is fine.

# The dish with a featureless rim and concave sides present in large numbers in the BRW of the doab is absent at Ahar and Gilund.

# Bowls with spouts and dish-on-stand present at Ahar and Gilund have not been found in the doab sites.

It also covers a vast time span from 2400 B.C. to the early centuries of the Christian era.

Q. Discuss PAINTED GREY WARE CULTURE (PGW)

A.  Painted Grey Ware (PGW) was discovered firstly at Ahichchhatra in 1946, since then a huge number of sites have been brought to light in different parts of north India. The concentration of PGW sites is in the Indo-Gangetic divide (Haryana), Sutlej basin and the upper Ganga plains. Settlements are located along river banks. The average distance from one side to the other is about 10 km. to 12 km. though in some cases it is also 5 km. The settlements at these sites are mostly small villages (1 to 4 hectares)

i) Pottery: Pottery is wheal made, out of well-levigated clay and has a thin core:

# It has a smooth surface, grey to ash-grey in color.

# It is painted in black and sometimes in a deep chocolate color on the outer as well as the inner surface.

# It has nearly 42 designs and the most common types are bowls and dishes

ii) Structures: The houses and other structures were of wattle and daub. This is indicated by the occurrence of patches of burnt earth, mud bricks, burnt bricks, mud platforms, and mud plaster pieces, with reed and bamboo impressions.

iii) Other Objects: A variety of objects made out of copper, iron, glass, and bone were found in excavations. These consist of axes, chisels, fish hooks and arrowheads. Spearheads are made only of iron.

iv) Crops and Animal Remains: Evidence of cultivated crops is available only at Hastinapura and Atranjikhera. At the former site, remains of only rice were found and the latter has yielded the remains of wheat and barley. Bones of horse, cattle, pig, goat, and deer have been found.

v) Trade Practices and Linkages: Beads made of a variety of semi-precious stones (like agate, jasper, carnelian, chalcedony, lapis lazuli) are found at different PGW sites in the doab. None of these stones, as raw material, are available in the doab. These items could have been obtained by trade. Agate and chalcedony are found in Kashmir, Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh whereas lapis lazuli is to be found in Badakshan province in Afghanistan. Thus, the people inhabiting the PGW sites must have obtained these stones through trade or exchange with these Regions.

Q. Describe NBP ware culture. 

A. This ware was first discovered at Taxila in 1930, since then 1500 sites have been discovered in different parts. Because of its black color and fine luster, the culture is known as Northern Black Polished Ware Culture. The excavations have revealed that:

# at several sites NBP Ware culture succeeded PGW levels, and

# at some sites NBP succeeded BRW, and NBP is succeeded by Red Slipped Ware.

There are two phases of NBP ware culture -

Phase 1 - This is the first phase characterized by a predominance of NBP Ware and the presence of shreds of BRW and PGW, though in meager quantities. In this phase, there is an absence of punch-marked coins and burnt brick structures, which signify a higher level of development.

Phase 2 - Pottery specimens belonging to BRW and PGW are not found in this phase. NBP Ware is of poor quality (thicker in fabric) and is found in smaller numbers. A coarse grey ware comes into greater use. Punch marked coins and burnt bricks make their first appearance. Taking into account the similarities between NBP & PGW some scholars have suggested that the former is a refined form of the latter.

Structures - Excavations revealed that during this period building activities began on a large scale and that cities began to emerge. Houses were made of burnt bricks, and the use of timber in house construction is evidenced, the roofs of houses were covered with tiles. The rooms were square as well as rectangular. Also, the elaborate drainage system was discovered. The fortifications signify defensive measures against invasion and speak of political tensions.

Pottery - The most characteristic feature of NBP Ware is its glossy surface. It is turned on a fast wheel and is made of well-levigated clay. NBP was a luxury ware not Available to everybody and suggests to us that in the society in which NBP Ware was used society was divided into unequal groups.

Other Objects - Several kinds of tools, weapons, ornaments and other objects made of copper, iron, gold, silver, stone, glass and bone have been recovered from NBP Ware sites. Copper and Iron objects are found in abundance during this period. Silver punch-marked coins have been found from the middle phase of NBP culture. These indicate a possible shift from the barter system to a system of exchange of goods through metallic currency.

Ornaments -

Beads made of semi-precious stones, glass, clay, copper shell, and bone are most commonly found. The ornament excavated indicates -

# use of ornaments in that society

# existence of specialized craftsmen to make them

# level of technology for making them, and

# trade or exchange activities with other regions to procure various semi-precious Stones.

Terracotta Figurines

These comprise human and animal figurines and miscellaneous objects. The miscellaneous terracotta objects are toy carts, simple & animal-headed gamesman; discs, balls, fleshrubbers and potter's stamps. At a later stage of this culture are found seals and sealings bearing inscriptions in Brahmi script.

Subsistence Economy and Trade

Archaeobotanical remains indicate that rice, wheat, barley, millet, pea, and black gram were cultivated. And the animal remains found from some of the sites suggest dependence on cattle, sheep, goat, pig, and fish. The diverse variety of beads, found to be common at several sites, Gives evidence of trade. This indicates trade links existed between Taxila, Hastinapura, Ahichchhara, Sravasti, and Kausambi during Ca. 600 B.C. to 200 B.C. Buddhist texts also testifies about trade guilds, and the caravans of camels, horses, mules, oxen, and buffaloes. Between the 6th and 3rd centuries B.C. there was trade between India and countries to the west. The main items of export were textiles, spices. Arthasastra (Book-II) tells the state not only exercised control over trade but also had a monopoly over industries like gold, copper, iron, lead, tin, silver, diamond, gems and precious stones.

Q. What are the characteristics of Malwa settlements?

A.  Excavations at Inamgaon revealed that settlements were quite large and planning was adopted in the laying out of the settlement. Houses were rectangular and were aligned in a roughly east-west orientation. Though these houses were built close to each other, they had an intervening space of about I-2m in between which might have served as a lane. Inside the house was a large oval fire pit with raised sides for keeping the fire under control. The houses were provided with one or two mouthed challahs in the kitchen. The grain was stored in deep pit silos. Malwa Culture settlements have a fortified mud wall with stone rubble bastions and ditch around the habitation.

Q. Discuss in about five lines the characteristics of Daimabad Hoard. 

A.  It was a chance discovery, four objects on the top of the mound (below which is a deposit, 1.2m thick belonging to the Jorwe period) came to light at Daimabad. These are massive, all solid cast, and weigh over 60 kg:

i) Elephant: This is the heaviest (25 cm in height X 27 cm in length), and stands on a cast copper platform with four brackets beneath, pierced, to take axles.

ii) Rhinoceros: This is slightly smaller, and also stands on a casting platform. The brackets contain two solid copper axles with cast wheels attached. This rhinoceros recalls the one inscribed on the Indus seals.

ii) Two-Wheeled Chariot with a Rider: The chariot is attached by a long pole to the yoked oxen which stands on two cast copper strips, but there are no brackets for wheels. The chariot has two uprights supporting a cross-bar behind which the rider stands. This piece has no parallels.

iv) Buffalo: This also has wheels and axle in position. This has some parallels in the figures of buffalo5 in both terracotta and case copper or bronze found from Mohenjodaro. The copper of the Daimabad hoard compares with that of other copper objects found in excavations, and spectrometric analysis of this metal has revealed that it is unalloyed by tin or other metals.

Unit 11

Q. Write ten lines on the cultural phases of the early farming communities in South India.

A.  There were 3 phases of the growth of the early farming communities in south India.

Phase I: The earliest settlements of these farming communities represent this phase. These were made on tops of granitoid hills, or on leveled terraces on hillsides, or in the valleys between two or more hills. The material culture consists of a polished stone axe industry, blade industry, and handmade pottery. In pottery, grey or buff-brown ware is most common. Maski and Brahmagiri have all revealed the first phase of settlements of these agro-pastoral communities. This phase can be ascribed

between 2500-1800 B.C. on the basis of radiocarbon dates.

Phase II: The settlement pattern of Phase-I continues without any change settlements were still made on top of granitic hills, or on leveled surfaces on the hillsides. Nonetheless, there are some important developments. The settlements had circular hutments of wattle and daub on wooden frames with mud floors. In this phase, new pottery types like the perforated and spouted vessels appeared. The discovery of such pottery types reveals contacts with regions in the north. The polished stone axe and blade industries proliferated in this phase. Copper and bronze objects were also discovered for the first time and their numbers increased towards the end of this phase. The available radiocarbon dates for this phase suggest a timespan covering 1800-1500 B.C.

Phase III: The important development in this phase is the increase in the number of copper and bronze tools. The stone axe and blade industries continue. In pottery a new grey and buff ware with a harder surface become common. This phase can be ascribed to the period 1400-1050 B.C.

Q. Can the economy of the farming communities of South India be characterized as Agro-pastoral?

A.  The economy of these communities was a combination of agriculture and & animal husbandry (cattle predominantly and sheep/goat to some extent), it can be termed agro-pastoral. The available archaeobotanical evidence indicates that millets and pulses were the main cultivated crops. Excavations yielded remains that belong to both domesticated and wild species. The domesticated species consist of cattle, buffalo, sheep, goats, pigs, dogs, and fowl. Cattle predominate at the majority of the sites indicating its importance in the economy of these communities.

Q. What did the ash mounds discovered at various sites signify?

A.  The ash mounds were originally the sites for cattle pens where dung accumulated; they were created because of the burning of cow dung; and that this burning was perhaps a part of the rituals performed by the neolithic communities.

Q. Write in about 100 words about the Iron Age in South India.

A.  On the basis of objects recovered during excavations, the use of iron in South India began sometime around 1100 B.C. The iron objects were recovered from the burial pits in south India. Most of the information about the iron age in south India comes from the excavations of the megalithic graves. The dead were buried with an array of iron objects: flat iron axes often with crossed iron bands for hafting, different types of flanged spade, hoe, and a spud or pickaxe, sickles, bill hooks,

wedges, crowbars, spears, knives, chisels or adzes, iron tripods, pot rests, saucers, hooklamps, many armed lam-pendants, daggers, swords (some with ornamental bronze hilts), arrowheads and spearheads with hollow sockets, ceremonial scalloped axes, iron tridents, etc.

Q. Write five lines on the economy of the South Indian Megalith builders.

A. Some scholars are of the opinion that people belonging to this place were proficient in tracing iron ore deposits and in the manufacture of a variety of iron objects. They were trading in these items and gradually took to settled life. The settlements found near the megalithic complexes have very thin debris of occupation indicating that these people were living in one area for a very short time. With the knowledge of iron, they could colonize new areas. Thus, some of the population was nomadic and some settlements might indicate the colonization of new areas.

Unit 12

Q. What are the four Vedas? Which Veda belongs specifically to the Early Vedic Period. 

A. Rig, Sama, Yajur, Atharva. Rigveda

Q. Is the theory of the Aryan invasion acceptable in the light of the archaeological excavations? Give the arguments of the Archaeologists in 100 words.

A.  The archaeological sources do not support the theory of Aryan invasion or migration. Archaeological evidence relating to the period between the second millennium B.C. and the first millennium B.C. has thus helped us modify existing views regarding the Vedic 'Aryans' in several ways. First, there is no substantial proof in archaeology that there was large-scale migration of people from central or western Asia into the Indian subcontinent around 1500 B.C. Second archaeologically there is no proof that the Aryans destroyed the Harappan civilization and laid the foundation of a new Indian civilization. The following points suggested by archaeological excavations at various sites prove Aryan invasion theory a misconception -

i) Earlier scholars believed that the Indo-Aryans caused the downfall of the Harappan civilization by destroying the Harappan towns and cities. They quoted Rigvedic hymns which invoke Indra to destroy the dwellers of the forts. But archaeological evidence has shown that the decline of the Harappan civilization was not caused by any large-scale destruction brought about by an alien invading Group but it was a long gradual process.

ii) Attempts to identify the makers of Painted Grey Ware with the Aryans also do not receive strong support from archaeological evidence. If the PGW cultures related to the Aryans, then keeping the theory of invasion in mind, we should have found this pottery type in the areas of Bahawalpur and Punjab i.e. along the route taken by the so-called Aryan migrants. However, we find these pottery

types confined to a particular geographical region comprising Haryana, Upper Ganga basin and eastern Rajasthan.

iii) It was earlier thought that there exists a time gap and hence, a cultural discontinuity between the late Harappan and the post-Harappan chalcolithic Period. However, recent excavations at Bhagwanpura, Dadheri (Haryana), and Manda (Jammu) have shown that the Late Harappan and Painted Grey Wares could be found together without any breaks. Hence."invasion" cannot be proved on the basis of the excavated sites.

Q. What do you understand by 'pastoral society'? Why was it the dominant occupational activity of the Early Vedic people?.

A.  The Early Vedic society was pastoral, cattle rearing being the dominant occupational activity. A pastoral society relies more on its animal wealth than agricultural produce. Pastoralism is a subsistence strategy adopted by people who live in areas where large scale agriculture is not feasible due to some environmental and to a certain extent, cultural constraints. Compared to the very substantial linguistic evidence for cattle rearing in the Rigveda, agricultural activities find very few references. Most of the references to agriculture are of a later date. Apart from 'Yava' or barley, no other grains are mentioned. Early Vedic people did not use iron technology. Copper, with which they were familiar did not have as much value in agricultural operations as iron implements. Stone tools (like axes) were used and these are mentioned in the Rigveda. The fire was used to burn down the forest cover and shifting agriculture was practiced. Further, the region under discussion receives low rainfall and all the rivers mentioned in the Rigveda i.e. the Satluj, Indus, Ghaggar, Ravi, etc. are known to change their courses frequently. Without the facilities of large-scale irrigation which were not developed in this period, the alluvial lands near the rivers could not be cultivated on a permanent basis. Thus the hoes, sickles, and axes mentioned in the texts, were used for slashing purposes or shifting cultivation. The evidence of pastoralism as well as shifting cultivation suggests that the people were either nomadic or semi-nomadic. They moved out of their villages with their herds for a certain period in order to feed their cattle. The literary and the archaeological sources do show that the people did not lead a fully sedentary life.

Q. What was the importance of cattle in the Early Vedic Society? Answer in 50 words.

A. The Early Vedic society was pastoral, cattle rearing being the dominant occupational activity. A pastoral society relies more on its animal wealth than agricultural produce. Pastoralism is a subsistence strategy adopted by people who live in areas where large scale agriculture is not feasible due to some environmental and to a certain extent, cultural constraints. Social religions and all important areas of Rigvedic life centered round the rearing of cows. Literary references to pasture lands, a cow pen, dairy products, and domesticated animals are also found in most of the hymns and prayers. Hymns of the Rigveda yield extensive evidence of the importance of cattle in the Early Vedic society. Many linguistic expressions in the Rigveda are associated with the cow (gau). Cattle was the chief measure of wealth and a wealthy man who owned many cattle was called 'gomat'.

Q. Discuss five important characteristics of the Early Vedic Society? Write in 5 sentences.

A.  1) The Early Vedic Society was a tribal society, in which social relations based on Kinship ties were predominant.

2) The society was not divided according to caste lines, and even the rajas (kings), the purohits (priests), the artisans, etc. were parts of the clan networks.

3) The tribe was referred to as the Jana and many references to the different tribes are found in the Rigveda. Inter-tribal conflicts were frequent, an example being the battle of the Ten. Kings mentioned in the Rigveda.

4) Society was patriarchal. The birth of a son was the common desire of the people. The importance given to the male members is reflected in the hymns, where the desire for a son is a constant prayer.

5) Various occupational groups such as those of weavers, smith, carpenters, leather workers, chariot makers, priests, etc. are also mentioned. The chariot makers occupied a special social status. There are no references to beggars, wage-earners or wages in the Rigveda.

Q. What was the position of the Rajan in the Early Vedic polity?

A.  Raja was the chief of the tribe, frequent wars made him important, he was the protector of the tribe, his position was not always hereditary but he was selected from amongst the clansmen. Inter-tribal conflicts were frequent and most of these conflicts are for cattle raids, thefts, etc. Which were the mainstay of the economy and hence the office of Raja became important as a protecter.

Q. Discuss the nature of the religion of the Early Vedic people.

A. The religious ideas of the Vedic people are reflected in the hymns of the Rigveda. They venerated the natural forces around them (like wind, water, rain, thunder, fire, etc.) which they could not control. Indra and Agni were given the utmost importance, one for rains and others being pure and taking the offering directly to the gods. The sacrifice of animals was frequent and religion was based on material gains.

Unit 13

Q. Write in fifty words the impact iron technology had on Late Vedic society

A.  From the excavations, it appears that. the use of iron was restricted to making weapons. Iron did not influence agricultural technology until the second half of the first millennium B.C. when the marshlands and monsoon forests in the middle Gangetic valley were gradually cleared. Iron tipped weapons and horse chariots helped military activities which were rampant in this period and have been extensively documented in the Mahabharata. However, in subsistence related activities, iron technology had practically no role.

Q. What was the family in the later Vedic period?

A. The patriarchal family was well established and the grihapati acquired a Special status. Since the householding economy was gaining predominance, the position of the householder acquired economic importance. The rights on land were based on usage, and communal ownership of land prevailed. The grihapatis were wealthy and their ritual role was that of a yajamma (i.e. he who orders sacrifice). Their wealth did not come from gifts but was produced by their own efforts. Despite the

presence of some women philosophers and the references to a few queens participating in the coronation rituals, women were considered subordinate to men and were not involved in any major decision making.

Q. What does the changing status of gods in the Later Vedic phase indicate?

A.  The changing status of the deities is an indication of the change in the character of the tribes from pastoral groups to sedentary agriculturist groups. The Early Vedic gods who represented natural phenomena were slowly discarded and the personification of; natural elements as divine beings became very complex. It was no longer easy to find the natural element which represented a particular god from the hymns of the Later Vedic period. Two prominent EarlyVedic gods, Indra and

Agni lost its importance. Prajapati the creator became important, Rudra, a minor deity in the Rigveda, became important now and Vishnu was conceived as the creator and protector of the universe.

EHI - 02

Block 1 (Unit 1)

Q.  Discuss the physical features responsible for the rise of Magadha.

A. Some of the physical features responsible for the rise of Magadha were -

#  highly fertile soils,

#  sufficient rainfall ensuring a rich annual paddy crop;

#  proximity to iron ore mines and sources of stone and timber of Chotanagpur Plateau which is towards the south of Magadha;

#  the rivers provided for comfortable communication and trade;

#  the closeness and continuity of settlements, occurred in this area taking full advantage of natural resources, leading to great population density.

A combination of these factors helped the easy conquest of the northern Gangetic plain. The territorial expansion over the northern plains then provided the basis for the complete  Indian territorial supremacy. The supremacy achieved by Magadha was based on the conquest of the northern plains which had all necessary requirements such as soil, rainfall, vegetation, easy communication lines and availability of natural resources. The surrounding rivers like the Ganga, Son and Gandak provided for natural defense and easy trade and transport thus facilitating the growth of the Magadha empire.

Q.  Discuss in about five lines the various kinds of pottery and the period it is associated with.
A. Pottery, because of its indestructible quality, helps an identifying mark of a culture and an important means of archaeological classification. Different cultures are identified by their pottery. We have the Ochre-Coloured Pottery Ware (OCP) which is dated earlier than 1000 B.C., the Painted Grey Ware (PGW) which roughly dated between 800-400 B.C., the Black and Red Ware (BRW) which lies in between the two and the Northern Black Polished (NBP) Ware which is dated between 500-100 B.C. The first three pottery types are basically encountered in the Indo-Gangetic divide and the upper Ganga valley, including the Doab. The Northern Black Polished Ware (NBP) has its center of origin in the middle Gangetic plain and spread out into Central India and the Deccan during the Mauryan period.

Q.  Discuss in about ten lines the factors which hindered the political unification of the Indian sub-continent.
A.  The development of strong regional personalities; strength of regional personalities; strength of regional forces etc. were major impediments for the unification of the Indian subcontinent .' The difference between regions may be explained in terms of :
# geography
# the manner and period of the spread of material culture, and
# the other important historical forces such as population, technology, social
the organization, communications, etc.
A combination of these factors helped in the shaping and development of the personality of the regions.
Owing to the development of distinct and strong regional personalities and the strength of regional forces the Indian sub-continent was never completely politically united. Some regions owing to their inner strength tried to expand and attain pan-Indian status with limited success. The Mauryas, Tughlaqs, Mughals and the British provided a semblance of political unity. However, none of them succeeded in imposing political unity on all the geographic units and culture areas, though the British came very close to it. Central India and the extreme end of Peninsular India have always remained outside the ambit of any strong, expansive pan-Indian power. Two geographical impediments were the Vindhyas that separate North India and the Deccan peninsula and Aravalis range also working as another frontier line.

Unit 3

Q.  Which period of Social evolution represents the hunting-gathering stage :
a) Palaeolithic Age
b) Mesolithic Age
C) Palaeolithic and Mesolithic Age
d) Neolithic Age
A.  Palaeolithic and Mesolithic Age

Q.  Pleistocene Period was :
a) Very cold
b) Very warm
c) Temperature was laid
d) Very dry
A. Very Cold

Q.  Palaeolithic Culture has been divided into three phases on the ba& of :
a) Change in the climate
b) The nature of stone tools.
c) Faunal remains
d) Nature of stone tools and change in climate and faunal remains
A. Nature of stone tools and change in climate and faunal remains

Q.  The Mesolithic tools are primarily:
a) Handaxe and cleaver
b) Cleaver, Chopper and Chopping tools
c) Blade, Core, Point, and Lunate &
d) Chopping tool and flake
A.  Blade, Core, Point, and Lunate

Q.  Mesolithic sites have been reported from:
a) The river Kothsri
b) The river Tapti
c) Godavari delta
d) The rivers Kothari, Tapti and Godavari delta
A. The rivers Kothari, Tapti and Godavari delta

Q.  Which one of the following statements is most appropriate?
a) The subsistence pattern of Mesolithic people was based on the hunting of animals
b) gathering of wild fruits and seeds
c) hunting of animals and gathering of wild fruits
d) surplus food pr4uction
A.  hunting of animals and gathering of wild fruits

Q.  What do the Mesolithic tools and paintings suggest in terms of subsistence pattern and social organization?
A. The diet of the people during the Mesolithic Age included both meat and vegetable food. The remains of fish, tortoise, hare, mongoose, porcupine, deer and nilgai have been found from different Mesolithic sites. Besides hunting and fishing, the Mesolithic people also collected wild roots, tubers, fruits, honey, etc. and these constituted important elements in the overall dietary pattern. The plant food seems to have been more easily available than the hunted animal food as the tools used were small, not ideal for hunting.
    The paintings and engravings found at the rock shelters which the Mesolithic people used to give us a considerable idea about the social life and economic activities of Mesolithic people. Sites like Bhimbetka, Adamgarh, Pratapgarh, and Mirzapur are rich in Mesolithic art and paintings. Hunting, food-gathering, fishing, and other human activities are reflected in these paintings and engravings. Bhimbetka is extremely rich in paintings. The paintings and engravings depict activities like sexual union, childbirth, rearing of a child, and burial ceremony. All these indicate that during
the Mesolithic period, the social organization had become more stable than in paleolithic times.

Unit 4

Q.  Discuss in about 10 lines the main characteristics of the Neolithic stage of culture.
A. The domestication of plants and animals has been considered as one of the main characteristic features of the Neolithic stage of culture. Some other characteristics of Neolithic culture were -
#  Practice of agriculture
#  Domestication of animals
#  Grinding and polishing of stone tools, and also
#  The manufacture of pottery.
The neolithic stage represents a culture of the pre-metal stage where the inhabitants had assured the supply of food by the cultivation of cereals and domestication of animals and led a sedentary life. However, Ground stone tools remain the most essential
characteristics of Neolithic culture.
Domestication of plants and animals led to:
#  the emergence of village communities based on sedentary life,
#  the beginnings of agriculture technology, and
#  greater control over nature by the exploitation of natural resources

Q.  According to Gordon Childe, Neolithic culture represents a .self sufficient  (dependent/self-sufficient) food-producing economy.
ii) Ground stone (Ground stone/Copper) tools remain the essential characteristic of
Neolithic culture.
iii) Jericho is the earliest known village with a  mud fortification (water tank/mud fortification).
iv) Catal Huyuk was a large (large/small) village in Turkey (Turkey/Iran).

Q.  What do the finds of pottery, ground tools, and mud hutments, etc. indicate in terms of development in human society?
A. The neolithic phase represents the evolution of human society from hunter-gatherer into a sedentary farmer. The origins of agriculture and beginnings of domestication of animals led to the establishment of villages and self-sufficiency of food grains. This was a revolutionary transformation from nomadic life to settled life. This led to the beginning of village settlements with mud hutments, manufacturing of pottery and manufacturing of new types of tools for hunting, now they were polished to agriculture.
Human communities entered a new stage of culture when, instead of depending entirely on the resources of nature for survival, they started producing their own food by cultivating cereals like barley, wheat, and rice and started domesticating some species of animals-both for supplies of milk and meat as well as for harnessing their labor for various purposes. Domestication of plants and animals led to:
#  the emergence of village communities based on sedentary life,
#  the beginnings of agriculture technology, and
#  greater control over nature by the exploitation of natural resources.
Well, all these indicate a process during which human beings were. moving from simple to complex societies; Division of labor: advances in technology; need-based inventions, etc. Were associated with this time.

Block 2 (Unit 5)

Q. Write ten lines on the geographical features of the early Harappan Civilization.
A. The areas of present-day Pakistan and North-West India formed the core region of the Harappan civilization. These areas are characterized by dry weather and scanty rainfall. However, there are variations among these areas. Whereas the areas of Punjab and Sindh are dominated by the alluvial plains of the Indus river system, the areas of Baluchistan are characterized by steep hills. This area has been inhabited by another set of people also, namely pastoral nomads. These pastoral nomads with their herds of sheep, goats, and cattle kept shifting from uplands to low lands in search of pastures for their herd. These hilly regions are fractured by many passes, like those of Khyber, Gomal and Bolan. These have acted as highways of traffic for nomads, merchants, warriors and various groups of people.

Q. How did different areas of the early Harappan period evolve into a civilization?
A. There were similarities found in the cultural traditions of diverse agricultural communities living in & around the Indus regions in the Early Harappan period. Although distinct regional traditions emerged among the small agricultural settlements the areas of Baluchistan, Sind, Punjab, and Rajasthan yet the use of similar kinds of potteries, representations of a horned deity & finds of terracotta mother goddesses show the way to the emergence of a unifying tradition and a civilization. Many factors that resulted in the evolution of the Harappa civilization were the developments that took place over a period of nearly three thousand years. Better Agriculture Technology and production Cultivators colonized the alluvial plains of the Indus during this period. These communities were using tools of copper, bronze, and stone. They were using plough and wheeled transport for the greater productivity of labor. The Indus people reared cattle which gave them better
possibilities of harnessing animal power for transportation and cultivation. This better use of technology increased agricultural production thus bringing in prosperity and supporting a greater population. The increasingly efficient technology and the exploitation of the fertile plains of the Indus increased grain production. larger agricultural surpluses lead to an increase in population. At the same time trading contacts established with distant communities of Mesopotamia etc by the richer section of the society increased the trade. The larger surpluses led to the increase of non-farming specialization thus, village priest could become the part of a clan of priests spread over the entire region. Similarily, metallurgists, potters, and craftsmen came into prominence. The improvements in transportation facilitated trade and better unification. At the same time, a gradual unification too took place in the pottery tradition. In the 'Early Harappan' period a particular kind of pottery first
identified in Kot Diji was spread over almost the entire area of Baluchistan, Punjab, and Rajasthan. In the backdrop of these processes of technological and ideological unification emerged the Harappan Civilization.

Unit 6

Q. Discuss the geographical location of the important centers of Harappan Civilization
A.  Some important centers of Harappan Civilization were -
Harappa - It is located on the bank of the Ravi in Western Punjab. It is one of the major cities of the civilization, and it was located in the midst of some important trade routes which are still in use. These routes connected Harappa with Central Asia, Afghanistan and Jammu. Harappa's pre-eminent position was linked to its ability to procure exotic items from faraway lands. The ruins of the city cover a circuit of about 3 miles. In Harappa, a substantial section of the population was engaged in activities other than food production. These activities could relate to administration, trade, craftwork or, religion. Since these people were not producing foo themselves, it was procured from nearby villages.
Mohenjodaro
Mohenjodaro, located in the Larkana district of Sind on the bank of the river Indus is the largest site of the Harappan Civilization. Most of the information regarding the town planning, housing, seals & sealings of this Civilization comes from Mohenjodaro. Excavations show that people lived here for a very long time and went on building and rebuilding houses at the same location. As a result of this, the height of the remains of the building and the debris is about seventy-five feet. Ever since the time
of occupation, there were regular floods at Mohenjodaro. These floods caused deposition of alluvial soil.

Kalibangan
The settlement of Kalibangan is located in Rajasthan along the dried-up bed of the river Ghaggar. This area had the largest concentration of the Harappan settlements. Kalibangan has yielded evidence for the existence of Pre-Harappan and Harappan habitations. It shows significant variation from Harappan in the sphere of religious beliefs. Some scholars have suggested that Kalibangan might have been part of the 'Eastern Domain' of the Harappan Civilization. They give evidence of the presence of distinct local traditions in pottery along with the Harappan pottery. Kalibangan might
have been a mediator between the Harappan cultural zone & the eastern provinces.

Lothal
In Gujarat settlements such as Rangapur, Surkotada & Lothal have been discovered. Lothal is located in the coastal flats of the Gulf of Cambay. This place seems to have been an outpost for sea-trade with contemporary West Asian societies. It's excavator S.R. Rao claims to have discovered a dockyard here.

Sutkagen-Dor
Sutkagen-Dor is located near the Makran coast which is close to the Pakistan-Iran border. At present, the settlement is land-locked in dry inhospitable plains.

Q. Discuss the material characteristics of the Harappan Civilization
A.  Some of the material characteristics of Harappan Civilization were -
Town-Planning - There was uniformity in town planning in Harappan towns. Each town is divided into 2 parts. In one part was a raised citadel where the rulers were staying, in the other part of the town lived the ruled and the poor. The settlements of Harappa, Mohenjodaro, and Kalibangan show certain uniformities in their planning. These cities were divided into a citadel on the west side and a
lower town on the eastern side of the settlement. The citadel was built on a high podium of mud brick. The citadel seems to have contained large structures which might have functioned as administrative or ritual centers. The lower city contained residential areas. In Mohenjodaro and Harappa the citadel was surrounded by a brick wall. At Kalibangan both the citadel and the lower city were surrounded by a wall, streets ran from north to south in the lower city and cut at right angles. In
Harappa and Mohenjodaro baked bricks were used for buildings. Harappans were using baked and unbaked bricks of standard size. This shows that it was not the individual house owners who made their own bricks, but that brick making was organized on a large scale. Similarly, cities like Mohenjodaro showed excellent I arrangements for sanitation.

Pottery - Most of Harappan pottery is plain, but a substantial part is treated with a red slip and black painted decoration. The painted decorations consist of horizontal tines of varied thickness, leaf patterns, scales, chequers, latticework, palm and pipal trees. Birds, fishes, and animals are also shown. Among the notable shapes found in the Harappan pottery are a pedestal, dishes, goblets, cylindrical vessels perforated all over and various kinds of bowls.

Tools and Implements
The tools and implements used by the Harappans also show a striking degree of uniformity in designs and in the technique of production. They were using tools made of copper, bronze, and stone. The basic tools types were flat axe, chisels, knives, spearheads and arrowheads for the copper and bronze implements. In the later stages of Civilization, they were also using daggers, knives and flat tangs. They were familiar Hooks for fishing with the techniques of casting bronze and copper. Stone tools were also in common use. They were produced on a large scale in factory sites like Sukkur in Sind and then sent to various urban centers.

Arts and Crafts
Works of art give us an insight into how society relates itself to its surroundings. There are many art pieces discovered from Harappan civilization, prominent among them were - the bronze dancing nude figure discovered in Mohenjodaro, The two little toy carts of bronze, The stone sculpture of a bearded head found in Mohenjodaro. Apart from bronze and stone artworks, Terracotta figurines have
also been found in large numbers from the Harappan settlements. They were used as toys or cult figures. The Harappans used remarkably beautiful beads made of such precious and semi-precious stones such as agate, turquoise, carnelian, and steatite. Gold and silver beads have also been found. More than 2000 seals have been found from the Harappan settlements. They are considered 'the outstanding contribution of the Indus Civilization' to ancient craftsmanship. They were generally square in shape and made of steatite but some round seals have also been found. The designs on the seals include a wide range of animals associated with groups of signs in a semi-pictographic script. Some seals have only scripts carved on them and some others bear-human and semi-human
forms. Some seals show the use of various kinds of geometric patterns.

The Indus Script
The seals used by the Harappans carried some form of writing. This script is still a mystery and has yet to be deciphered by scholars.

Subsistence Pattern
The Harappans urbanism was based on agricultural production. Two varieties of wheat are frequently found in Harappan sites. Barley has been frequently found. Other crops include dates and varieties of leguminous plants, such as peas. Besides this mustard and sesamum were also grown. At Lothal and Rangapur rice husk was found embedded in clay and pottery. Fragments of cotton cloth are also found in some areas indicating Harappans had mastered the art of growing cotton and wearing cloth. Thus, we find that the Harappan subsistence system was based on the exploitation of a fairly wide range of crops, domesticated animals and wild animals. This variety would account for the strength of the subsistence system.

Unit 7

Q. Discuss the exchange system among the Harappan towns.
A.  The Harappans had established an extensive network of inter-regional trade inside and outside the Indian sub-continent. The Harappans had made distinct attempts at regulating trade and exchange amongst themselves. Even the far-flung Harappan sites have yielded uniform systems of weights and measures. The weights followed a binary system in the lower denominations: 1,2,4,8, to 64, then going to 160 and then in decimal multiples of 16, 320, 640, 1600, 3200, etc. Made of chert, limestone, steatite, etc. they are, generally cubical in shape. The measures of length were based upon a unit of the foot of 37.6 cm and a unit of the cubit of about 51.8 to 53.6 cms. Such a uniform system of weights and measures indicates an attempt by the central authorities to regulate exchange among the Harappans themselves and possibly with the non-Harappans too. Seals and sealings have been discovered in large numbers in the Harappan settlements. Seals and sealings are marks of ownership meant to guarantee the quality of the product being sent to faraway lands.

a) The Harappans obtained gold from.. .....kashmir........(Kashmir/Rajasthan).
b) (Iron/ Tin) ....Iron....... was not known to the Harappans.
c) Lapis Lazuli was discovered in large quantity at.. ...Shortughai...............(Kalibangan/Shortughai).
d) Copper has obtained from.. ..Rajasthan....... (Rajasthan/Gujarat).
e) (Suktagen-Dor/Kalibangan)...SuktagenDor.....was important as a trading port between the Harappans and the Mesopotamians.

Q. Write in five sentences on the transportation system of the Harappans.
A.   Many representations of ships and boats are found on seals in Harappa and Mohenjodaro. At Lothal was found a terracotta model of a ship with a stick impressed socket for the mast and eyeholes for fixing rigging. At Lothal was also discovered a brick basin 219 by 37 meters in length, with brick walls of 4.5 meters in height. The excavator believed that it was a dockyard. Apart from this site, the
seashore of the Arabian sea seems to have been dotted with many sea-ports. Places like Rangapur, Somnath, and Balakot would have functioned as outlets for the Harappans. Even in the inhospitable Makran coast, Harappan sites like Sutkagen-Dor and Sutkakoh have been discovered. The primary reason for their location in those inhospitable tracts was that they were safe from the dangerous monsoon storms and currents hitting the sea-coast in Western India and Sind. In the monsoon months,
they could function as outlets for the Harappans. The inland transport was done with bullock carts. Many terracotta models of bullock carts have been found in Harappan settlements. In Harappa was
found a bronze model of a cart with a seated driver and also models of little carts which are very ' similar to the modem 'Ikka' used in Punjab. For a longer journey through the wooded country, caravans of pack-oxen would be the chief means of transport. In historical times a large number of goods were transported by pastoral nomadic communities. Possibly the Harappans also engaged in similar practices. However, in those times river systems would have been the channels of transportation because they were cheaper and safer.

Unit 8

Q. Write five lines on Harappan Script.
A.  The written script of the Harappans has been discovered but had not been deciphered yet by scholars. Some scholars believe that the language is written there is ancestral to the Dravidian group of languages like Tamil while others consider it was ancestral to language like Sanskrit. Scholars are of opinion that the Harappan script was not in common use and a very small section of privileged scribes had a monopoly over the written word.

Q. On what basis can we say that Harappan was an Urban Civilization.
A.  Many reasons are available that indicate that Harappan civilization was an
Urban Civilization they were -
1) The construction and maintenance of elaborate drainage systems and streets.
2) The granaries which would collect food grains from the surrounding hinterland and redistribute it among the citizens of cities
3) The sheer range and volume of products consumed by the residents indicate the consumption pattern of cities.
These are some of the basis indicating Urban Civilization of Harappans.

Q. A number of things found in Harappan excavations indicate the presence of civic and political authority. What are these?
A. 1) The construction and maintenance of 'elaborate drainage system and streets would require a municipal authority in the cities.
2) The granaries indicate the presence of an authority which would collect food grains from the surrounding hinterland and redistribute it among the citizens.
3) As pointed out earlier, the tools, weapons, bricks, etc. show a remarkable uniformity of design. Some of the tools and weapons seem to have been mass-produced in one place and then distributed to various cities and settlements. The organization of production and distribution of these objects over an area covering thousands of km. would give tremendous power to those who decided how much to produce and where to send the products. If these people were to stop the supply of goods to a particular town, that town would be starved of tools and implements.
4) The sheer range and volume of products consumed by the residents of the large Cities indicate that some kind of a ruling class resided in them. Many of the objects were rarities brought from faraway lands.
5) Similarly, the larger size of the cities did not simply indicate that a larger number of people lived there but also the fact that they contained many monumental structures like temples, palaces, etc. The people who lived in these structures exercised political or economic or religious authority. No wonder, the seals which are considered marks of the authority of traders, priests or administrators are found in the largest numbers in Mohenjodaro where the largest number of monumental structures have also been found.

Q. Which of the Harappan religious structures indicate the prevalence of some collective worship or rituals?
A.   A number of large buildings in the citadel and the lower town at Mohenjodaro are believed to have been temples of gods. In the lower city at Mohenjodaro a large the building has been discovered with monumental entrance and a double stairway leading to, a raised platform on which was found a stone sculpture 161/2 inches high. Another important structure found In Mohenjodaro which seems to have had some ritual significance is 'The Great Bath'. Hence, Big temple-like structures with a
number of sculptures, common baths, assembly halls, structures with a number of
fire pits, etc

Q. Do we get any evidence of fire worship from Harappan finds?
A.  The Harappans at Kalibangan and Lothal seem to have followed different religious practices. At Kalibangan in the citadel were found a series of raised brick platforms crowned with 'fire altars' i.e., a series of brick-lined pits containing ash and animal bones. This area also had a well and bathing places. This complex seems to have represented some kind of ritual center where animal sacrifice, ritual ablution and some sort of fire rituals were performed. Many houses in the lower town also
contained a room having 'fire altars'.

Q. What significant points emerge from the study of the burial practices of Harappan sacrifice?
A.  The most significant point is that burying the dead was accompanied by some rituals. It-appears that the Harappans believed in some sort of life after death because a number of items of everyday use or ornaments are also placed alongside the dead. Some times it is paired burial one male-and one female. In, some cases urns containing bones are also buried.

Unit 9

Q. Discuss in about 50 words the evidence for and against the theory of Barbarian invasions having destroyed Harappa.
A. Some scholars believed that the Harappan civilization was destroyed by the Aryan invaders. They point towards massacre at some places due to findings of human skeletons lying on the streets. These scholars refer to Rig Veda where it was mentioned that the fortresses of the Dasas and Dasyus were destroyed by The Vedic god Indra. The geographical area of the habitation of the Rig Vedic Aryans included Punjab and the Ghaggar-Hakra region. Since there are no remains of other cultural groups having forts in this area in this historical phase, scholars believed that it was the Harappan cities that were being described in the Rig Veda. In fact, the Rig Veda mentions a place called Hariyupiya. This place was located on the bank of the river Ravi. The Aryans fought a battle here. The name of the place sounds very similar to that of Harappa. These evidence led scholars to conclude that it was the
Aryan invaders who destroyed the cities of Harappa. This theory was rejected by some scholars on the basis that the provisional date for the decline of the Harappan civilization is believed to be 1800 B.C. The Aryans, on the other hand, are believed to have arrived here not earlier than a period around 1500 B.C. and so, the Harappans and the Aryans are unlikely to have met each other. The evidence of the human bodies lying exposed in the streets could have been caused by raids by bandits from the surrounding hilly tracts.

Q. Write in about 50 words about the importance of what has survived from Harappa.
A. The cults of Pasupati (Siva) and of the mother goddess and phallic worship seem to have come down to us from the Harappan tradition. Similarly, the cult of sacred places, rivers or trees, and sacred animals seems to have continued from the historic civilization of India. The evidence of fire worship and sacrifice in Kalihgan and Lothal is still prevalent. Many aspects of domestic life like the house plans, disposition of water supply and attention to bathing continued in the subsequent periods. The traditional weight and currency system of India, based on a ratio of sixteen as the unit, was already present in the Harappan civilization. The techniques of making potter's wheel in modern India are similar to those used by the Harappans. Bullock carts and boats used in modem India were already present in the Harappan cities.