EHI - 02

5th Part 

Unit 23

Q. Who were the Sungas? Give an outline of their rule.

A. The Sungas was a brahmana family belonged to the region of Ujjain in Western India, where they worked as officials under the Maurya Kings. The founder of the Sunga dynasty was Pushyamitra Sunga who assassinated the last of the Maurya Kings Brihadratha in 180 B.C. This is corroborated by Bana, the Sanskrit prose writer and court poet of Harshvardhana of Kanauj. The Ayodhya inscription of Dhanadeva describes Pushyamitra as an orthodox Brahmin and indulging in asvamedha or horse sacrifice, a Vedic ritual symbolizing royal glory. Pushyamitra controls a vast territory

and according to Puranas, his reign continued for 36 years who was succeeded by his son Agnimitra. The last Sunga King was Devabhuti. He was the fourth ruler of the line and according to Banabhatta, author of Harsha-Charita he fell victim to the conspiracy of his brahmana minister Vasudeva. Thus, the Sunga line came to an end around 75 B.C.

Q. What was the significance of the rule of the Sakas in northwest India?

A. The Sakas are referred to also as Scythians. In the Indian context, the sources sometimes mention the Scythians arid Parthians together as Saka-Pahlawa. The Sakas poured into India through the Bolan Pass from the central Asian region. Coins and other sources indicate that the Sakas divided themselves into many branches and settled in the lower Indus region. One branch of Sakas settled in Afghanistan.

Another line of the Sakas settled in Punjab with Taxila as the capital. There was another that ruled from Mathura. A fourth branch established itself in Western and Central India from where they continued their rule till about the fourth century A.D. The Sakas are credited with destroying and defeating the Greek rule in Northwestern India. The Sakas along with the Parthians introduced the Satrap system of government. Under this system, the kingdom was divided into provinces each under a military governor called Mahakshatrapa (great Satrap). Governors with lower status were called Kshatrapas (Satraps). These governors issued their own inscriptions and also minted their own coins. This is indicative of a more

independent status than was otherwise normal in an administrative set-up.

Q. What is the most important source for the reconstruction of the history between 200 B.C.-300 A.D.?

A. Apart from coins minted in this time period that gives vital information, Puranas and other texts like the Gargi Samhita, the Mahabhashya of Patanjali, the Divyavadana, the Malavikagnimitra of Kalidasa and the Harshacharita of Bana.

Evidence of Sunga history comes to us also from the inscriptions from Ayodhya, Vidisa, and Bharhut. Inscriptions written in Kharosthi script are found in large numbers in this period in the region of Gandhara and there are many Kharosthi documents found in Central Asia as well. In the Buddhist sources too, we find evidence regarding this period. For example, the Pali work Milinda-Panha (The questions of Milinda) bears on the Yavana King Menander and on Buddhism in this period.

Q. Write short notes on a) Impact of Central Asian Contact.

A.The significance of contact with Central Asia is widespread and in different spheres -

Trade & Technology - Trade contacts with Afghanistan were already existing but now Central Asia also opened up to trade with new routes. One of these routes became famous as the old Silk Route. The Kushanas controlled the silk route which started from China and passed through Central Asia and Afghanistan and Western Asia. This route was a source of great income to the Kushanas. They levied tolls from the

traders. India received a good deal of gold from the Roman Empire. Traders of different ethnic origins established trading stations and colonies from which the merchants operated. Examples of such places are Kashgar, Yarkand, Khotan, Miran, etc. New elements in cavalry and techniques of war were introduced in India. The Central Asians also brought in the cap, helmet, and boots that were used by the warriors.

Material Remains - New kinds of techniques were added to the already existing techniques for structures, pottery, and coins. Excavations have revealed several layers of structures in Northern India. They point to the use of burnt bricks for both the floor and the roof. Brick wells may also have been introduced during this period. The pottery of this period is redware, both plain and polished, with sometimes medium and sometimes fine fabric.

Polity - The Sakas and the Kushana put great emphasis on the notion of the divine origin of kingship. The Kushana kings were referred to as Sons of God. The Sakas had introduced the satrap system in the administrative set-up. The entire empire was divided into satraps. Some of the foreign rulers also introduced the practice of hereditary dual rule which meant two kings, holding higher and lower status, ruling in the same kingdom at the same time. For example, a father and son would rule simultaneously. The practice of military governorship was also introduced probably by the Greeks. These governors were known by the title of Strategos. They were important for two reasons :

(a)for maintaining the power of the rulers over the indigenous people and

(b) for blocking invasions from the northwest.

Religion and Art Form - The foreigners adapted to Indian ideas and forms of worship. kings like Menander and Kanishka were converted to Buddhism. Some of the rulers

were worshippers of Vishnu; others of Siva. Some Kushana rulers worshipped both Siva and Buddha and the images of these two Gods appeared on some of the Kushana coins. The foreign rulers were also patrons of Indian art and literature.

b) Assimilation of the foreigners into the Indian mainstream.

A. Above answer & Foreign rulers like Kushanas controlled vast territories & they fully integrated with Indian mainstream. Although their empire lasted for about one century and a little

more, their connection with India, their assimilation into Indian society as well as their contribution to Indian culture left a deep impression on the Indian mind. Like the Sakas and Pahlavas, they too are mentioned in Epic, Puranic and other literature. The Kushanas were particularly important as their empire became a meeting point of civilizations of the Mediterranean world, Westem Asia, Central Asia, China, and India. Kanishka I one of the Kushana rulers is an important figure in the history of Buddhism as being one of its great patrons. He sponsored the fourth Buddhist council during

his reign to discuss matters relating to Buddhist theology and doctrine. The doctrines of the Mahayana form of Buddhism were finalized at the council. Missionary activity was given an impetus and during his period Buddhist monks started traveling to Central Asia and to China. Kanishka was also a patron of art and Sanskrit literature.

Unit 24

Q. How would you account for the increase in trade in the post-Mauryan period?

A. Some of the reasons were -

# Agriculture generating enough surplus during that period. It had created such social classes which required varieties of items that could be acquired only through trade. Agricultural produce was itself now an item of trade because the majority of people living in cities did not produce their own food.

# Both Buddhism and Jainism which had a large following encouraged the accumulation and reinvestment of wealth and trade as was one of the occupations held in high regard. Hence we find that there was a close relationship between the traders and the Buddhist Sangha and Buddhist monastic establishments were located at important points along trade routes further facilitating the trade.

# The expansion of urban centers meant that there was a growing class of consumers for subsistence as well as luxury goods. Together with these internal factors was an increased demand from outside for various Indian goods. Two major empires that arose at this time were the Roman Empire in the west and the later Han Empire in China. Within the Roman Empire, there was greater demand for products of the east such as spices, aromatic woods, etc. Similarly, the rulers of the later Han Empire adopted an encouraging approach

towards merchants and this resulted in an acceleration of contacts between India, Central Asia, and China.

Q. Describe the importance of the Ganga valley in the early historical period.

A. The Ganga rises in the Himalayas and in its journey to the Bay of Bengal it receives the waters of many tributaries along the way. These tributaries such as the Yamuna, Gomati, Ghagara, Gandak, etc. add to the flow of water in the Ganga with the result that even in the summer months enough water is available for irrigation and agriculture. The south-west monsoons bring rainfall mainly to the middle and lower Ganga valley & the region is fertile & capable of supporting large populations. Not only is the Ganga valley agriculturally productive but the river itself is also navigable along its length. From ancient times there has been regular traffic of men and commodities on the Ganga and the river has been the lifeline of the north, connecting the cities of the northwest with those near the coast.

Q. According to the Greek text Periplus, which were the items imported into, and exported out of India?         A. The imports in India included brocades, coral, frankincense, glass vessels, money, and some wine. The Romans are famous for technological improvements

that they made in the manufacture of glass which was in demand in India. In exchange for these, the exports from India were spices, precious stones like turquoise, lapis lazuli and carnelian and Chinese silk and yarn.

Q. Why were the Chinese goods being traded from China to Europe through India?

A. The reason for this was the political situation. The Parthians were powerful rulers along the north-western boundary of the Indian sub-continent. There was constant hostility between them and the Roman Empire and as a result, overland routes between China and the west were disrupted. Many of the products from China were hence traded along the land route to India.

Unit 25

Q. Explain the basic aspects of Mahayanism.

A. Mahayana belief, first preached by a Buddhist sect called Mahasanghika, that every being could aspire to Buddhahood and could attain it-through various stages as Bodhisattva. One could become a Bodhisattva by performing the meritorious acts or Paramitas. Other features associated with Mahayana faith are: Belief in'sunyata or void or non-reality of objects; belief in mantras, belief in numerous Buddhas and

Bodhisattvas and the practice of worshipping gods and goddesses. Whereas earlier Buddha was considered as a teacher only, now in the Mahayana sect he was worshiped as God. This brought about a change in the form in which he was worshiped. For example, earlier in sculpture, he has represented through a pair of footprints; a white elephant and a flower, etc. But now people began to worship Buddha images and idols.

Q. Write a note in about five lines on important Jaina centers.

A. Among the many Jaina centers, Rajagriha or Rajgir developed into an important center during the first and second centuries A.D. Vajra Muni of the Svetambara sect

was associated with this place. Mathura was another important center. From the sculptures found in Mathura and

from the dedicated inscriptions on them, it is evident that the merchant class patronized Jainism here on a significant scale. It continued to be an important center of Jainism for many centuries. According to a late tradition. Ujjain was another important center of Jainism in this period. In the northwest, Sirkap in Taxila grew into a Jaina center from the early centuries of the Christian era in addition to being a major Buddhist center. It had a large Jain establishment.

Similarly, Broach and Sopara on the western coast were great centers and monks frequented there. In Orissa, Udayagiri and Khandagiri hills near Bhuvaneswar were other centers from the Mauryan times, and they continued to flourish even after the rule of Kharavela. In the Tamil country, Madurai and Sittannavasal may be considered as important

centers. Large Jaina establishments existed at these places in the second century B.C. and afterward.

Q. Discuss the important aspects of Vaishnavism in 100 words.

A. Vaishnavism was another popular sect of Brahmanism followed by a larger group of people in all parts of India. The principal deity of this sect was Vishnu who is referred to as the protector in the Brahmanical religion. The cult of Vishnu in the early period was known by the name Bhagavatism, which was developed from the Vedic cult Vasudeva-Krishna. Bhagavatism owed its origin to the Upanishads. It arose around the Mathura region. It stressed upon the idea of a supreme god called 'Hari' and sacrifices & other rituals were regarded as of minor importance. Devotion to Vishnu was considered as the supreme virtue. Initially, it was confined to the Mathura region but later Inscriptions testifying to the worship of Vasudeva are found in Maharashtra, Rajputana and Central India. In the Tamil country also the worship of Vishnu was very popular. His different qualities and attributes are mentioned in the Tamil Sangam works. He is identified

with Krishna. He was also worshiped in his avatars (incarnations) as Rama and Balarama. Vishnu, the chief deity of the Vaishnava sect, had manifested himself in many avatars. Vishnu was thus worshiped also in his avatar forms. Krishna, Rama & Balarama was the most respected avatars of Vishnu. But other avatars like Narasimha and Varaha were also worshiped.

Q. Write about the new developments in Brahmanism during this period.

A. Brahmanism too acquired many new features during this period. The central feature of this was the worship of gods and goddesses and not the performance of sacrifices. Two important sects Shivaism and Vaishnavism rose to prominence during this period. The characteristic changes apparent in this period were:

# a the shift from the pure ritual to bhakti or devotion, and

# assimilation of some of the local traditions into the Brahmanical religion. Vaishnavism absorbed a number of different gods like the Vedic Vishnu. The epic heroes Rama and Krishna were accepted and they gained an enviable position among the Brahmanical deities. The Tamil deities, mentioned in the Sangam literature, were adopted into the Brahmanical faith. In the same way, some of the local deities of north India were also admitted into the Brahrnanical pantheon. Among them, Brahma, Agni, Surya, and Indra were some of the popular ones. The four guardian deities (dikpalas) namely, Yama, Varuna, Kubera, and Vasava were also worshipped. Beside these:

# Animals like elephant, horse, and cow were worshiped,

# The Naga or Serpent worship was popular in. almost all parts of the country, and

# Many trees and tree spirits were also worshiped.

Unit 26

Q. Discuss in about five lines the main features of Mauryan Art.

A. During the Mauryan period, sculpture and architecture had reached a developed stage. The Asokan pillars; the animals and carvings on the pillars - all represent mature art forms. A unique feature of the specimens of Mauryan art fashioned in

stone is the polish and the smooth, glassy surface not to be found during any other period. In addition to the animal figures, the most famous piece of art is the figure of Yakshini from Didarganj, Patna. This superb art piece tells us about the hairstyle, ornaments, and dress of women during that period. The Mauryan levels at sites which have been excavated have yielded a large number of terracotta figurines.

Q. What is a Stupa? Discuss the main characteristics of Sanchi Stupa.

A. The practice of preserving the remains of an important personality below accumulated earth was long in existence. Buddhist art adopted this practice and the structure built over such a site was known as Stupa. The Stupas had the shape of a bowl turned upside down. At the top, which was a bit flat, used to be its harmika, i.e. the abode of the Gods. It was here that the urns containing the remains of the

Buddha or a great personality connected with the religion was placed in a gold or silver casket.

Sanchi Stupa - has three Stupas all with gateways around them. But the most famous is the Great Stupa which was originally made of brick in Asoka's time (C. 250 B.C.). During the Sunga period, this was later on nearly doubled in circumference in 150 B.C. The bricks of Asokan times were replaced by stones, and a 'Vedika' was also constructed around it. The northern gate and the panels depict stories from the Jatakas. The reliefs of Sanchi display (among other representations) the following quite prominently :

1) The four great events of the Buddha's life, i.e. birth, attainment of knowledge, dharmachakra - pravartana and Mahaparinirvana.

2) Representations of birds and animals like lion, elephant, camel, ox, etc. are abundant. Some of the animals are shown with riders in heavy coats and boots.

3) Lotus and wishing-vines have been prominently and beautifully carved out as ornamentation, and

4) Unique representation of forest animals in a manner that looks as if the whole animal world turned out to worship the Buddha.

Q. Discuss in about ten lines the main characteristics of Gandhara art.

A. Gandhara Art which was mainly Buddhist was profoundly influenced by Hellenistic art. The chief patrons of Gandhara art were the Sakas and the Kusanas. Gandhara art can be divided into two schools early and later. During the early school, which existed during the first and second century A.D., blue-grey schist stone was used to make idols. However, in the later school instead of schist stone, mud, lime, pilaster, and stucco were used to make the idols. These idols give a realistic representation of the human figure clearly indicating limbs and other organs of the body. They are depicted with sharp features and anatomical accuracy. Besides idols, we find beautiful carvings on reliefs the theme being the life of Buddha and Bodhisattvas. The main centers from where the art pieces of Gandhara School have been found are Jalalabad, Hadda, Bamaran, Begram, and Taxila.

Q. Give such examples of art which demonstrate that besides religious themes, political personalities had drawn the sculptor's attention. 

A. Mathura Art - The Mat village in Mathura yielded big images of kushana kings and other notables like Kanishka, Wima, and Chastana. The idea of building reliquaries or structures for housing portrait-statues of rulers and other dignitaries of the State came from Central Asia. This was done to give the rulers a divine status. A bronze reliquary was recovered from the sidewalls of the Stupa at Shah-Ji-kidheri. It depicts Buddha, Kusana kings and flying geese (symbolic of wandering monks).

Amravati Art - Similar to the depiction of Kushana kings from Mathura in the form of statues, we find the kings and princes as themes represented in Amaravati sculpture

also. However, at Amaravati, they are not individual statues but are arts of a narrative. For example, the story of King Udayana and his queen is depicted on relief, a relief medallion depicts a court scene where the king is receiving presents, and in relief, the panel has depicted a scene showing a king on the march, with elephants, horse riders and footmen.

EHI - 02

4th Part 

Unit 18

Q. Magadha was surrounded by the following three kingdoms:

A. Anga, Vajji Confederacy, Kassi

Q. Describe the important sources for reconstructing the history of Magadha

A. Some of the most important texts available are well preserved in early Buddhists and Jain literature. Buddhist texts like the Tripitikas and the Jatakas and Jain texts Acaranga Sutra and Sutrakritanga shed vital information regarding Magadha. Later Buddhist chronicles like the Mahavamsa and Dipavamsa compiled in Sri Lanka are significant sources for the events related particularly to Asoka Maurya's reign. Divyavadana (which is preserved outside India in the Tibetan and Chinese Buddhist sources) also provides information. Other important sources are

Arthashastra written by Chanakya and books by Greek writers like Megasthenes, Strabo, Diodorus, and Arrian.

Q. List three important factors that were advantageous for the growth of the Magadhan kingdom.

A. 1) Magadh lies close to the iron mineral area thus has an abundant supply of iron ore required for good production of weapons and agricultural implements. It facilitated the expansion of the agrarian economy and thereby. the generation of substantial

surplus, extracted by the State in the form of taxes. This, in turn, enabled them to expand and develop their territorial base.

2) Magadha lies on the most fertile alluvial soil thus agriculture production was immensely creating an economic boost to the economy.

3) Pataliputra became the capital of Magadha under the Mauryas. This enabled Magadha to effectively command the uttarapatha (northern route) which lay to the north of the river Ganges, along the foothills of the Himalayas. The river also came to be used as one of the main arteries connecting Magadha with different regions and making heavy transport along the river possible.

Q. To what extent do you think that the Nanda rule in Magadha was significant?

A. The Nandas are described as the first empire-builders of India. They overthrew all the contemporary ruling houses and thus usurped more areas and brought them under Magadha control. Nandas had contact with the Deccan and South India. Their control of some parts of Kalinga (modem Orissa) is indicated in the Hathigumpha inscription of king Kharavela, who ruled in Orissa from the middle of the first century B.C. Inscriptions from the south Kamataka region suggest that parts of the Deccan were also included in the Magadhan empire under the Nandas. Thus under the reign of Mahapadma Nanda the first phase of the expansion and consolidation of the Kingdom of Magadha took place.

Q. Write a note on why there was a change in the policy of conquest under Asoka?

A. Asoka himself in Rock Edict 13 described his conquest of Kalinga which took place eight years after his consecration, around 260 B.C. In this war, the Kalingans were completely routed "One hundred thousand were slain, and many times that number died." Though on the battlefield Asoka, was victorious, the inscription goes on to describe his remorse which then ultimately turned him towards Dhamma. A policy of conquest through the war was given up and replaced by a policy of conquest through Dhammavijaya.

Unit 19

Q. List the material changes that took place in the Ganges Valley under the Mauryas in about four lines.

A.  Some of the material changes that took place were -

1) Improvement of technology

2) Increased circulation of coins

3) Increase in urbanization

4) Use of bricks

Improvement in technology - During this period there was an improvement of technology in construction, burnt bricks, timber structures excavated gives testimony to it. Similarly, the use of iron tools in clearing dense forests and other iron tools like socketed axes, sickles, and plowshares improved the agricultural output significantly.

Increased urbanization - With the agricultural surplus economy improved significantly and thus new social class emerged which was not directly involved in agriculture but in trading. This social class of merchants and traders lived in towns thus increasing

the pace of urbanization.

Increase circulation of coins - Magadha facilitated trade within the country and also abroad. This increase in trading was supported by the increased frequency of coins which were minted by state. Due to the close proximity to silver, gold mines, coins were minted in silver, gold, and copper as proved through excavations.

Q Matching words
A Janapadanivesa -------------- Process of Settlement
Sitadhyaksa --------------- Official in Crown lands
Gahapati ---------------- Landed gentry
Samaharta ---------------- Revenue Assessor

Q. Which tax was collected only in cash in Magadha
A  Hiranya

Q. List the fiscal measures which were expected to be adopted by the State during periods of emergency.

A. Different kinds of taxes can be imposed during an emergency like the levy of pranaya which literally meant a gift of affection. It amounted to 1/3 or 1/4 of the products according to the nature of the soil. It is usually interpreted as a voluntary gift but once put into practice, in reality, it must have become obligatory. Further,in times of emergency, the cultivators could be forced to raise two crops.

Q. List the main taxes and revenue officials of the Mauryan period.

A. Some of the taxes were

1) Land tax (Bhaga) was the main item of revenue. According to the texts, it was levied at the rate of 1/6th of the produce.

Pindakara - The peasants paid a tax called pindakara paid by husbandmen, which was assessed on groups of villages. Often the villages had to supply provisions to the royal army passing through their respective territories.

Hiranya - This is another kind of tax levied which is paid in cash, as the hiranya literally means gold

Bali - It is the traditionally known levy from the Vedic times, continued under the Mauryas.

Pranaya - It is the tax which was levied during the emergency. It amounted to 1/3 or 1/4 of the produce according to the nature of the soil. It is usually interpreted as a voluntary gift but once put into practice, in reality, it must have become obligatory. Further, in times of emergency, the cultivators could be forced to raise two crops. The Mauryas attached great importance to the assessment of land revenue and the highest officer in charge of this was the samaharta. The sannidhata was the chief custodian of the State treasury.

Q. The official in charge of mines was called in the Arthasastra
A.  Akaradhyaksa

Q. Kautilya lists the salaries of the highest-ranking officials as 48,000
A. Panas

Q. The overall supervision of commerce in the cities was the duty of
A. Panyadhyaksa

Q. The goods produced by the State were called
A. Rajapanya

Q. Outline in brief the important trade routes in Mauryan 1ndia

A. The main trade routes in northern Indian were along the river Ganges and the Himalayan foothills. Major centers like Rajagriha in Magadha and Kausambi, near present-day Allahabad, were connected in this way. Pataliputra, the capital of the Mauryas had a particularly strategic location and was connected by river and road in all four directions. The northern route going to such sites as Sravasti and Kapilavastu was connected through the city of Vaisali. From Kapilavastu this route linked up Kalsi, Hazara.and eventually led up to Peshawar. In the south, it was connected to Central

India and in the South-east to Kalinga. This eastern route turned southwards to finally reach Andhra and Karnataka. The other part of the eastern route continued down to the Ganges delta to Tamralipti which acted as an exit point for the south and south-east. From Kausambi moving westwards another route led to Ujjain. This continued either further west to the coast of Gujarat or west south across the Narmada and was regarded as dakshinapatha (southern route). The overland route to countries of the West went via Taxila near Islamabad.

Q. To what extent did the Mauryan State interfere in commodity production and trade?

A. The State had a monopoly in certain important spheres of activity. The Arthasastra provides for a superintendent of mines called akaradhyaksa whose chief function was to look for new mines and reopen old. Apart from mining metals, another area of State monopoly was mining salt. Thus state had a monopoly over

mining and trading in mineral products. Steps to organize trade and commodity production were part and parcel of State policy. This policy was aimed at augmenting its efficiency in economic spheres of activity and its revenues. Mauryan state also manufactured goods. Different kinds of goods in different categories were looked after By officials of particular departments. These goods were called rajapanya. The State was careful to choose those areas of commodity production and trade that were essential for its functioning and yielded good revenues. Steps were taken to provide

protection to guilds to facilitate trade and collecting revenues. Similarly, steps were taken to improve irrigation facilities to improve the agricultural economy and augment state resources.

Unit 20

Q. Discuss in about ten lines the relations between the King and the Council of Ministers in the Mauryan empire.

A. The Arthasastra, as well as the Asokan inscriptions, refer to a Council of Ministers. (Mantriparishad) and its functions. The Girnar Rock Edicts of Asoka mention about the functions of the Council:

# Rock Edict 3 implies that the Parishad was expected to see that new administrative measures were carried out by different categories of officials.

# Rock Edict VI mentions that the ministers can discuss the King's policy during his absence; suggest amendments; and decide upon any important matter which the King has left to them. Yet the Council had to report its opinion to the King immediately.

The power of the Council varied from time to time, yet its primary role remained that of an advisory body. This was because the final authority vested with the King. In Arthshastra Kautilya mentions that King should consult his ministers on issues like-

# consultation on how to start the works which the state wants to undertake,

# to determine the manpower and finances involved in carrying out these works,

# to determine the areas-where the works have to be carried out, and

# finding solutions to deal with calamities, etc.

Kautilya mentions that the work should be carried out according to the majority verdict (Bhuvyist) in the council but in case the King feels that the majority verdict will not be able to achieve the goal, he should decide according to his own thinking.

Q. On what basis we can say that the Mauryan city administration was well organized?

A. Megasthenes gave a vivid description of administration in Palibothra (Patliputra). This account, though different from that in the Arthasastra, helps us in understanding the city administration during this period. In this account, the city council was divided into six sub-councils or committees and each committee had five

members:

1) The first committee looked after industry and crafts. Its functions included inspection of such centers fixing the wages, etc.

2) The second committee looked after the foreigners. Its functions included; arranging for their food, stay and comfort, security, etc.

3) The third committee's work was the registration of births and deaths.

4) Looking after trade and commerce, the functions of the fourth committee included: inspection of weights and measures, controlling the market, etc.

5) The fifth committee inspected the manufactured goods, made provisions for their sale and a strict watch was kept to distinguish between new and second-hand goods.

6) The sixth committee collected taxes on the goods sold the rate being 1/10. Interestingly enough, there is no mention of such committees in the Arthasastra in spite of the well-defined plan of the city administration. However, we do find in this planning almost all the functions mentioned by Megasthenes. For example, in Arthasastra the functions of the fourth committee are performed by the Panyadhyaksha; the collection of taxes (Sixth Committee) was the responsibility of Sulkadhyaksha and registration of births and deaths were the work of Gopa. The head of the urban administration was called Nagariaka. He was assisted by two

subordinate officials - Gopa and Sthanika. Besides these, there were a host of officials whose functions have been elaborately defined. For example:

# Bandhanagaradhyaksha looked after jail.

# Rakshi i.e. the police, was to look after the security of the people.

# Work in the centers where goods were manufactured was looked after by a host of superintendents like the Lohadhyaksha, Sauvarnika, etc. The Arthasastra also refers to a variety of activities of the city administration, regulations related to them and penalties on their breach. These included:

# Sanitation and water sources

# checking adulteration,

# watch over inns, and

# precautions against fire, etc.

Q. The provincial administration was headed by -------- kumara

Q. At the village level, judicial powers were vested in --------- Gramika

Q. Discuss in about ten lines the sources of revenue and expenditure of the Mauryan state.

A. Kautilya has listed different resources from where revenue flowed into the state treasury which was looked after by an official Sannidhata.

# The cities collected revenues in the form of fines, sales tax (Sulka), exercise on sale of liquor, a kind of income tax imposed on the rich, etc. (The Arthasastra lists 21 such taxes collected by the Durga). The revenues from the rural areas were appropriated by the state in the form, of income from Crown lands (Sita), land

revenue (Bhaga) from cultivators, taxes on orchards, ferry charges, etc.

# As all the mines were under the control of the state, the mineral wealth was a regular source of income for the state.

# Taxes were levied on merchants traveling by road or waterways.

# Taxes on exports and imports, etc.

There were certain collections made directly by the state from the

people. The gamblers had to part with five percent of their winnings to the state and the merchants had to pay when their weights were tested and certified by the state officials. The state control over the armament industry and salt trade increased its

revenues. The state was also empowered to impose taxes in case of an emergency for increasing its earnings. Most of the revenue collections which went to the state treasury had their outflow in the form of expenditure on army, administration, salaries, king, etc.

The state also spend money on public works like -

# The state took considerable interest in irrigation projects like dams, ponds, canals, etc.

# There are many references to medicine men of various kinds during this period like ordinary physicians (Chikitsakah), midwives (Garbhavyadhi), etc. From Asokan inscriptions, we know that medical treatment and medicines were available to both men and animals.

3) The state also helped its citizens during natural calamities like floods, famines,, etc.

4) The Arthasastra mentions that the King should look after orphans, old unattended women, etc. To what extent these were actually carried out we do not know.

5) An important aspect of public works was the laying down and repair of roads. 

Q. List in five lines the main features of village administration.

A. The administrative units included a set up at the district level consisting of a number of villages and at the same time each village had its own administrative unit. The officials listed at the level of the district during this period were Pradeshta, Rajuka, and Yukta, the former being the overall in charge of the district. Their functions included:

# survey and assessment of land,

# tours and inspections,

# revenue collection, and

# maintaining law and order, etc.

The officials at this level were local people appointed and assisted by the villagers. Gopa and Sthanika are the two types of officers, acting as intermediaries between the district and village level administrative units. Their functions included:

# demarcating village boundaries,

# maintaining records of lands used for various purposes.

# recording income and expenditure of people, and

# recording taxes, revenues, and fines, etc.

Q. Discuss the various phases in the relations of Mauryas with other powers.

A. From the time of Chandragupta till the Empire came to an end we can divide the foreign relations of the Mauryas into two distinct phases) the initial phase or the phase of expansion

ii) the latter phase or the phase of consolidation. The initial phase was marked by a policy of securing trade routes and subjugating the Greek settlements in the north and north-west regions. The incorporation of central India gave them control over Dakshinapatha and brought them into the peninsula. It can be said that with the Kalinga War the initial phase of expansion came to an end. This phase was marked by an aggressive foreign policy. It was through war and subjugation that hostile regions were brought under control. Once the Mauryan expansion reached its limits the emphasis shifted to consolidation and having friendly relations not only with immediate neighbors but with far-off Countries. Contacts had been established with the western world and during the times of Bindusara there was a regular exchange of messengers, Strabo's account mentions Demiachos as a successor to Megasthenes in the Mauryan court.

Q. List the names of Yavana rulers mentioned in RE XIII.
A. Antiochus 2 of Syria
Ptolemy 2 of Egypt
Autigonas of Macedonia
Magas of Cyrene, and
Alexander of Epirus

Unit 21

Q. Discuss briefly the historical background against which the policy of Dhamma formulated.

A. The historical background against which the policy of Dhamma was formulated were -

Socioeconomic - The Mauryan period witnessed a change in the economic structure of society. With the use of iron, resulting in surplus production, a changeover took place from a simple rural economy to a pattern of the economy in which cities and towns also played an important part. The rise of urban centers points to a structural change in the economy requiring necessary adjustments in the society with more flexibility in social organization. The rigidity of the Brahmanical class sharpened the division within the society. The lower orders turned to the various heterodox sects

and this created social tensions. It was this situation in which emperor Asoka inherited the Mauryan throne.

Religious - The Brahmanical hold over society, assiduously built through the later the Vedic period was coming under increasing attack. The privileges of the priests, the rigidity of the caste system and the elaborate rituals were being questioned. The lower orders among the four castes began to favor the new sects. Under these

circumstances, the other religious sects appealed to the lower orders and to the emerging social classes. This further created religious tensions in society.

Polity - By the time, Asoka ascended the throne, the state system, over a period of more than two hundred years, had grown very elaborate and complex. It was characterized by:

# The political supremacy of one region (Magadha) over a vast territory which comprised many previous kingdoms, Gana-samghas, and areas where no organized states had existed before.

# Existence, within this vast territory, of various geographical regions, cultural areas, and of different faiths, beliefs and practices.

# Monopoly of force by a ruling class of which the emperor was the supreme head.

# Appropriation of a very substantial quantity of surplus from agriculture, commerce, and other sources.

# Existence of an administrative apparatus.

The complexity of the state system demanded an imaginative policy from the emperor which required minimal use of force in such a large empire having diverse forms of economy and religions. It could not have been controlled by an army alone. A more feasible alternative was the propagation of a policy that would work at an ideological level and reach out to all sections of the society. The policy of Dhamma was such an endeavor.

Q. Explain in ten lines the main principles of the policy of Dhamma

A. The principles of Dhamma were so formulated as to be acceptable to people belonging to different communities and following any religious sect. It emphasized on toleration and general behavior. Dhamma stressed on dual toleration-it

emphasized on toleration of people themselves and also toleration of their various beliefs and ideas. There is a stress on the notion of showing consideration towards slaves and servants; there is stress also on obedience to elders; generosity towards the needy, Brahmanas and Sramanas, etc. Asoka also pleaded for tolerance of different religious sects in an attempt to create a sense of harmony. The policy of Dhamma also laid stress on non-violence. Non-violence was to be practiced by giving up war and conquests and also as a restraint on the killing of animals. The policy of Dhamma also included certain welfare measures, like the planting of the trees, digging of wells, etc. Asoka attacked ceremonies and sacrifices practiced regularly on various occasions as meaningless.

Q. What is the importance of the Rock Edict X111 in the understanding of the policy of Dhamma?

A. The RE13 gives us insight information about the thought process developed by Ashoka. It has a vivid account of the horrors of the Kalinga war. It portrays he wanted to conquer the world through love and faith, he sent many missions to propagate Dhamma. Major Rock Edict X111 is of paramount importance in understanding the Asokan policy of Dhamma. The Rock Edict pleads for conquest by Dhamma instead of War. This is a logical culmination of the thought processes which began from the first Rock edict, and by conquest what is perhaps meant is the adaptation of the policy of Dhamma by a country, rather than its territorial control. The propagation of Dhamma included many measures for people's welfare. Centers for the medical

treatment of men and beasts were founded inside and outside the empire. Shady groves, wells, fruit orchards, and rest houses were laid out.

Unit 22

Q. What were the immediate administrative problems faced by the successors of Asoka.

A. The disorder that emerged in the administrative machinery after the death of Asoka is regarded as one of the important factors for the disintegration of the Mauryan empire. The immediate problem for Asoka's successors was whether to continue his policy of Dhamma and its predominance in the government. Another

related feature of the political importance of Dhamma was the existence of a large body of officials of the State called Dhammamahamattas. They had become very powerful and oppressive during the latter half of Asoka's reign. Asoka himself in

the First Separate Edict to the Mahamattas, stationed at Dhauli and Jaugada, asked them to ensure against oppression and to be just and humane.

Q. What was the crux of the problem in the administrative system of the Mauryas that caused disintegration under the later kings?

A. # Centralization of power - The nature of the Mauryan State necessitated a king of strong abilities. It was a system that required the king to be in direct touch with all aspects of the State's functionaries, Since these functionaries were ultimately held together by a power structure with the king at its center, once the

king became weak, the whole administration naturally weakened. Once the center became weak, the provinces too started breaking away.

# Personal loyalty of officials - The officials of the State were personally selected by the king and owed loyalty only to him. Once weak rulers came and ruled for a short duration of time, it resulted in an overwhelming number of new officials constantly emerging and owing only personal loyalty to their respective kings and not to the State. Under such circumstances, it was local rulers and princes who were earlier subdued under the Mauryan empire found it easy to emerge with these traditional ties to support them, as important centers of power. The provincial governments under the later Maurayas thus increasingly began to question the Central authority.

# The Mauryan bureaucracy was under stress and strain resulting in an inefficient administration unable to maintain social order in general.

# The extremely complex system of spies employed for providing information on erring officials had worked efficiently till Ashoka, but it collapsed under later Mauryan kings. There was thus no means through which the kings could either gauge the public opinion in the empire or, check on the corruption.

# A conscious loosening of military control on behalf of the Mauryan kings started during the Ashokan period was also a major political reason for their decline.

Q. List the views of those scholars that advocate Asoka's policies being responsible for Mauryan decline

A. 1) Some scholars maintain that Pushyamitra Sunga, who killed the last Mauryan emperor represented a strong Brahmanical reaction against the pro-Buddhist policy of Asoka and the pro-Jain policy of some of his successors. Moreover, the Satavahanas who rose to power in the Deccan after the Mauryas were also said to have been Brahmanas. These scholars list a series of acts done

by Asoka himself which may have antagonized the Brahmanas. For example, the ban on animal sacrifices is considered one which was especially resented, since this action was taken by a Shudra King (according to the Purana accounts the Mauryas are listed as Shudras). They suggest that the Dhammamahamattas, as special officers of Dhamma appointed by Asoka, destroyed the prestige of the Brahmanas. These officials disallowed Brahmans to continue their traditional laws of punishment and other-Smriti injunctions.

2) Another group of scholars gives emphasis to Asoka's pacifist policies as a factor for Mauryan decline. They think that this was responsible for undermining the strength of the empire. This explanation focuses on Asoka's policy of ahimsa or non-violence. The harmful effect of this policy is provinces who had become

oppressive and ought to have been controlled. Non-violence on the part of the king also meant that he no longer exerted his control over officials particularly in the provinces who had become oppressive and ought to have been controlled, Citing examples from Buddhist stories in the Divyavadana , this argument goes on to show that revolts in the provinces had been taking place.

EHI - 02

3rd Part 

Block 4 (Unit 14)

Q. How have the historians combined the archaeological and literary evidence, regarding the material culture in the 6th century B.C.?

A.  The archaeological and literary sources put together to provide us with a more complete picture of the Indian society between the 6th and the 4th centuries B.C. The Vedic literature like Upanishads which was composed 800 BC onwards refer to many Janapadas and Mahajanapadas and provide us insights into the settlement of agricultural communities. Buddhist texts like Sutta Pitaka, Vinaya Pitaka, Abhidhamma Pitaka and Jataka tales part of Sutta Pitaka tell us about the preachers, princes, rich, poor and towns and villages of that period. They provided graphic descriptions of contemporary society. These texts have clear references to various regions and geographical divisions. The archaeologists also contribute to our understanding of

this period. They have dug up various places like Ahichchhatra, Hastinapur. Kausambi and Ujjaini, Sravasti, Vaisali and many more which are mentioned in the texts of this period. They have discovered the remains of the houses, buildings, towns, and objects used by the people.

Q. Write two lines each on the new groups that emerged in this period.

A. Gahapati

A Gahapati was the master of an individual household that owned land. With the emergence of agricultural society, land became an important form of wealth. As such the ruling clans of the Kshatriyas and Brahmanas brought it under their control. The Gahapatis got their land cultivated by slaves (Dasa), hired laborers (Karmakar) and Shudras Merchants

From the ranks of the Gahapatis that an important class of traders emerged. Through the sale of their products, they built up a certain amount of capital which was used for trading. The word frequently used for the trader in the Buddhist sources is Setthi, meaning 'a person having the best'. It shows that the people who dealt with money matters had acquired considerable prestige and power.

Ruler and the Ruled

Unlike before, Kings of the 6 BC indicate his rule over territory with a regular taxation system and army. There are references to Krsaka i.e. peasants who paid taxes to the king. Now the peasant and the army were not linked in any kinship tie with the Raja. The distinction was now between Raja and Praja. The Praja included people from the non-lineage groups aha. A standing army implied control over local peasantry through force and an attitude of permanent confrontation with the people and kings of the neighboring territories.

Q. Name of the rulers with the name of Mahajanapadas.

Ajatsatru -------------------------------Magadha

Pradyota ------------------------------- Avanti

Udayana ------------------------------- Vatsa

Prasenajita ----------------------------- Kosala

Q. Name of Mahajanapadas with the name of the capital

A. Kashi ------------------- Varanasi

Anga ------------------------------ Champa

Vajji ------------------------------ Vaisali

Vatsa ----------------------------- Kausambi

Unit 15

Q. What is an Urban Center. 

A. The urban center refers to a place where the most powerful and visible sections of the population are engaged in activities other than food production. The urban society is

characterized by the presence of craft specialists, rich and poor people and a state administration. The other characteristic of an urban center is that it functions in

relation to a large hinterland. The residents of the city provide administrative, economic or religious services to a population residing in an area much larger than the physical space of the city. This relationship with the population of the hinterland

is advantageous to the urban center. The residents of the city are able to harness the resources of the people living in the hinterland in the form of taxation in kind or tribute. The merchant living in the city is also able to appropriate a share of the resources of rural areas by controlling the supply of metals, minerals or some luxury items.

Unit 16

Q. What mere the main factors which influenced agricultural growth? 6BC Period

A. Some of the main causative factors which seem to have influenced agricultural growth were as follows:

1) The crucial role of iron implements in clearing the thick vegetation cover of the Ganga Plains from about 600 B.C. onwards. Cereals like rice, barley, wheat, and millets were produced over the wider areas of land.

2) Buddhists insisted on the protection of cattle and Suttanipata clearly states that they should not be slaughtered because they constituted a source of grain and strength. Thus the preservation of cattle wealth for agricultural purposes was encouraged.

3) the beginning of paddy transplantation.

4) The rice-producing economy was supplemented by domestication and hunting of animals. This was another major means of their economic life and the source of

livelihood. Archaeologists have recovered a large number of bones of cattle, sheep, goats, horses, and pigs from the number of archaeological sites. Thus, the animals

were not only used for draught and the plough of fields but a section of the society was also probably non-vegetarian.

Q. How did rural economy develop? during 6 BC (Buddha, Jain period )

A. The rural economy developed through the establishment of new settlements by shifting surplus population from the overpopulated areas, and also by rehabilitating the decaying villages. In such cases, cattle, seed, money, and irrigational facilities were given by rulers. The remission of taxes and other concessions were allowed. Retired officials and priests were granted lands in such areas. Lands in these areas

could not be sold, mortgaged or inherited. Grassland was owned in common. They had an independent internal economy. The chief occupation in the rural area remained to be agriculture. The village supplied surplus produce to the towns and the towns supplied other necessities to the villagers. Whereas agriculture was the main occupation cattle rearing and certain small crafts connected with land, forest, and animals catering to local requirements, where the

other features of the rural economy.

Q. What were the important trade routes during the period under review?

A. In those days trade, both inland and foreign was fairly brisk. Merchants traveled long distances up and down the great rivers of the country and even undertook coastal voyages to Burma and Sri Lanka from Tamluk in the east and from Broach in the west. Inland, the traders followed certain well-established routes. One of them ran from Sravasti to Pratisthana; another linked Sravasti with Rajagriha; a third

skirted along the base of the Himalayas from Taxila to Sravasti, and a fourth connected Kashi with the ports of the western coast.

Unit 17

Q. Explain the Buddhist philosophy of 'Nirvana' and 'Karma'.

A. Buddhism laid great emphasis on the law of 'karma'. According to this law, the present is determined by past actions. The condition of a man in this life and the next depends upon his own actions. Every individual is the maker of his own destiny. We are born again and again to reap the fruits of our 'karma'. If an individual has no

sins, he is not born again. Thus the doctrine of karma is an essential part of the teachings of Buddha. Buddha preached 'nirvana', the ultimate goal in the life of a man. It means the

shedding of all desires and ending of sufferings, which finally leads to freedom from rebirth. By a process of elimination of desire, one can attain 'nirvana'. Therefore, Buddha preached that the annihilation of desire is the real problem. Prayers and sacrifices will not end the desire. So unlike the emphasis on rituals and ceremonies in Vedic religion, he laid emphasis on the moral life of an individual.

Q. List the factors responsible for the growth of Buddhism.

A. Factors responsible were -

# Emphasis on practical morality, an easily acceptable solution to the problems of mankind and simple philosophy, attracted the masses towards Buddhism.

# The ideas of social equality laid down in the codes of Buddhism made many lay followers accept Buddhism.

# Merchants, like Anathirpindika, and courtesans, like Amrapali, accepted the faith because they got due respect in this religion.

# The use of popular language (Pali) to explain the doctrines also helped in the spread of the religion. This was because the Brahmanical religion had limited itself to the use of Sanskrit which was not the language of the masses.

# The patronage extended by kings was another important reason for the rapid growth of Buddhism. For example, according to tradition, Asoka sent his son Mahendra and his daughter Sangamitra to Sri Lanka to preach Buddhism. He also established many monasteries and contributed liberally to the Sangha.

# The institution of Sangha had helped to organize the spread of Buddhism effectively.

Q. What are the basic principles of Jainism?

A. Mahavira accepted most of the religious doctrines laid down by Parsvanatha. However, he made some alterations and additions to them. Parsvanatha advocated the following four principles:

b) non-violence,

c) non-possession, and

d) not to receive anything which was not voluntarily given. To this Mahavira added celibacy (brahmacharya). Mahavira believed that the soul (jiva) and matter(ajiva) are the two basic existing elements. By means of continued efforts, the soul can be relieved of bondage. This is the final liberation (moksha) of the soul. The liberated soul then becomes 'the pure soul'. According to ta Jainism, man is the creator of his own destiny and he could attain 'moksha' by pursuing a life of purity, virtue, and renunciation. Moksha (nirvana) can be attained by observing the following three principles (ratnatraya):

i) Right belief.

ii) Right knowledge, and

iii) Right action.

He advocated a life of severe asceticism and extreme penance for the attainment of 'nirvana' or the highest spiritual state. He believed that the world was not created by any supreme creator. The world functions according to an eternal law of decay and development. He thought that all objects, animate and inanimate had a soul. He believed that they feel pain or the influence of injury.

Q. Who are Ajivikas? What are their ideas?

A. The Ajivikas are said to be sudra sannyasins. The sect was said established by Nanda Vachcha, who was followed by Kisa Sankichcha. The third religious chief was Makkali Gosala, who popularised this sect. He denied the theory of 'karma' and argued that man is subject to the laws of nature. The Ajivikas believed that the thought and deed of an individual were predetermined (decided before birth). They

did not believe that there was any special cause for either the misery of human beings or for their deliverance. They did not believe in human effort and held that all creatures were helpless against destiny. Gosala maintained that all creatures had to face misery and it would end after the completion of fixed cycles. No human effort would reduce or lengthen the period.