EHI - 3

3rd Part

Q.  Who were Mongols ? Give a brief account of their rise in Central Asia. 

A.  The Mongols were dwellers of the steppe region, north of China and east of Lake Baikal. In the early decades of the thirteenth century, Asia and Europe experienced a new wave of nomad conquerors from the east, an invasion more formidable and devastating than any other known to history before. These new invaders were the Mongols, who are best known for the great empire which they formed under Chengiz Khan. By the close of the thirteenth century, the Mongol empire covered a vast portion of the known world: China, Manchuria, Korea, North Vietnam, Tibet, Turkestan, Afghanistan, Iran, Mesopotamia, Southern Russia, and Siberia. 

              The sudden rise of Mongols to power appears to fall in line with an old pattern characteristic of the steppes. Long periods of internecine conflict between bands of nomads would throw up a leader of outstanding ability who after ironing out differences between the warring hordes welded them into a powerful coalition.

Through choice or compulsion, the smaller, fragmented nomadic groups were absorbed into the coalition. The next stage saw the nomads aggressively directed at the surrounding sedentary societies.

           Under Chengiz Khan the Mongols became a formidable force. The first military efforts of Chengiz Khan were devoted to bringing the pastoral tribes of the eastern steppes under his sway. The first military efforts of Chengiz Khan were devoted to bringing the pastoral tribes of the eastern steppes under his sway. Internally consolidated, the Mongols burst out of the confines of Mongolia and in 1211 AD, breached the Great Wall of China. It took the Mongols just about three years 1219-22, to complete the annexation of Transoxiana and Khurasan. Two years after, returning to Mongolia in 1225, Chengiz Khan died. By then the whole of northern China had been annexed. The empire was divided among his sons.

Q.  Briefly discuss the Mongol incursions in 13th—14thcentury India. 

Q.  Examine Delhi Sultans' response towards the Mongol challenge. 

Q.  Discuss the rise of Mongols in Central Asia. How did the Delhi Sultans face their attacks on India? 

Q.  Write a brief note on the Mongol problem during the Delhi Sultanate.

A.  The response of the Sultanate towards the Mongol challenge can be divided into three phases: (i) aloofness (ii) appeasement  (iii) resistance

A.   Iltutmish followed the policy of aloofness. The Delhi Sultans had to face the Mongol threat as early as A.D. 1221 when Chengiz Khan reached the Indian frontiers. Chengiz Khan is reported to have sent his envoy to Iltutmish's court. It is difficult to say anything about the Sultan's response, but so long as Chengiz Khan was alive (d. A.D. 1227), Iltutmish did not adopt an expansionist policy in the north-west region. An understanding of non-aggression against each other might have possibly been arrived at. Iltutmisln shrewdly avoided any political alliance with the Khwarizm Prince who was sought by Chengiz Khan. A shift from Iltutmish policy of 'aloofness' to 'appeasement' was the result of the extension of the sultanate frontier up to Lahore and Multan which exposed the Sultanate directly to the Mongol incursions with no buffer state left between them. Razia Sultan also followed the policy of appeasement by not joining the anti-Mongol alliance.

             Between 1240-66, the Mongols for the first time embarked upon the policy of annexation of India thus bringing an end to the non-aggression pact with Delhi. During this phase, the Sultanate remained under serious Mongol threat. The main reason was the change in the situation in Central Asia. The Mongol Khan of Transoxiana found it difficult to face the might of the Persian Khanate and, thus attacked India to improve his fortunes. 

             A distinct change in Delhi Sultan's policy can be seen from Balban's reign onwards. On the whole, it was the phase of 'resistance. By and large, Balbm remained in Delhi and his energies concentrated mainly in keeping away the Mongols, at least from the Beas. Balban used both 'force and diplomacy' against the Mongols. He took some measures to strengthen his line of defense. Forts at Bhatinda, Sunam, and Samana were reinforced to check any Mongol advance beyond Beas. Balban succeeded in occupying Multan and Uchh but his forces remained under heavy Mongol pressure in Punjab. 

            During Alauddin Khalji's reign, the Mongol incursions extended further and they attempted to ravage Delhi for the first time in A.D. 1299 under Qutlugh Khwaja. Since then, Delhi became a regular target of the Mongols and was ravaged again in 1303 AD. Constant Mongol attacks pressed Alauddin to think of a permanent solution. He recruited a huge standing army and strengthened the frontier forts. As a result, the Mongols were repulsed in 1306 and 1308. Thereafter Mongols got entangled in the civil war and their power weakened thus helping the Delhi Sultanate to extend and consolidate its frontiers. 

Q. Give a detailed account of the expansion of the Delhi Sultanate under the Khaljis. 

A. The first of Khalji Sultan, Jalaluddin couldn’t expand the Delhi Sultanate during six years of his reign. It was under Alauddin Khalji, his assassin, and successor that territorial annexation and expansion of the Sultanate started. 

West and Central India

Alauddin Khalji, after consolidating his position and firmly establishing himself at Delhi undertook the first expedition in the region of Gujarat in 1299 which was the first project of territorial expansion under him. The imperial army was jointly commanded by Ulugh Khan and Nusrat Khan and the province was plundered and the capital Anhilwara was sacked. The administrative control of Gujarat was entrusted to Alp Khan as governor. Continuing with westward expansion, the next kingdom to fall was that of Malwa in 1305. The province of Malwa, after its fall, was given for administration to Ainul Mulk who was known to also bring Ujjain, Dhar, and Chadderi under his control. Malwa was followed by Siwana, a town situated some eighty kilometers to the south-west of Jodhpur and the fort and the territory was put under the charge of Kamaluddin Gurg in 1309. In the same year (1309), Jalor was attacked and its ruler Kanhar Dev was killed in the battle and the fort annexed to the Sultanate under the control of Kamaluddin

Gurg. 

North-West and North India -

         In 1300, Alauddin sent Ulugh Khan to march against Ranthambhor ruled by Rai Hamir. Nusrat Khan, then posted at Awadh, joined Ulugh Khan. The Imperial army captured Jhain on the way and then laid a siege which was eventually captured after 6 months of siege. In pursuance of the same policy, Alauddin attacked and captured the kingdom of Chittor in 1303. Khizr Khan was assigned the governorship of the territory. 

Deccan and Southward Expansion - 

            The military campaign in the Deccan was planned by Alauddin against Rai Ram Chandra Dev of Devagiri in 1306-7. The command of the campaign was given to Malik Kafur, the campaign was successful as the king surrendered and agreed to pay regular tributes. The acquisition of wealth from southern kingdoms and not actual territorial annexation was the prime motive in sending these expeditions. Accordingly, in October 1309 the Imperial army began its southward march under the command of Malik Kafur and captured the fort of Sirpur. By the middle of January 1310, Warangal was attacked and the war came to an end due to surrender by Rai Rudra Dev. He agreed to part with his treasures and pay annual tribute as a token of submission. In February 1311, the Imperial army under Malik Kafur attacked Dwarasamudra, further south of Warangal and it was captured after surrender offer by Ballala Dev, the ruler of Dwarasamudra. Alauddin's Deccan and southward campaigns were aimed at achieving two basic objectives:

(i) formal recognition of the authority of Delhi Sultan over these

regions, and

(ii) the amassing of maximum wealth at the minimal loss of life.

Q.  Give a detailed account of the expansion of the sultanate under the Tughlaqs. 

A.  The Tughluqs came to power in Delhi When Ghiyasuddin Tughluq ascended the throne in 1320. The Sultanate was suffering from unsettled political conditions and demanded immediate attention to the new ruler. The outlying provinces had proclaimed independence as the effective control of the Sultanate had shrunk only to the heartland. This required fresh military campaigns for the reinforcement of imperial authority in South India. 

The South - 

In 1321, Ulugh Khan (later Muhammad Tughluq) started for the south with a large army. Without much resistance in the way he reached Warangal. After two sieges, each lasting four or five months, the ruler Rai Rudra Dev finally decided to surrender. But this time there was no forgiving and thus the fort was occupied, plundered and some demolitions affected. The Rai was made a prisoner and escorted to Delhi. Warangal was annexed to the Sultanate under direct imperial administration. In continuation of the same policy Ulugh Khan also brought Malabar to submission

and set up direct imperial administration there. The region of Telingana was thus made a part of the Delhi Sultanate and divided into several administrative units.

            The expedition in the eastern parts of India came as a consequence of the wars in the South. Bhanudeva II, the ruler of Jajnagar in Orissa supported Rai Rudra Dev of Warangal at the time of imperial offensive against the latter. Ulugh Khan, therefore, after laving Warangal sometime in the middle of 1324, marched against Jajnagar. A fierce battle Ulugh Khan(Muhamad Tughlak) was victorious. He plundered the enemy camp and collected large booty. Jajnagar was annexed and made a part of the Sultanate. In 1323-24 Bengal was also brought under the Sultanate.

Northwest and North - In 1326-27 Muhammad Tughluq led campaigns to Kalanaur and Peshawar. These regions were successfully captured and after settling the administrative arrangement of the newly conquered regions and he marched back to Delhi.

Q.  Compare Alauddin Khalifs and Muhammad bin Tughluq's Deccan and Southern campaigns.
Q.  Discuss the Delhi Sultan's policy towards Deccan and South India.
A.  Above ans.

Q.  Discuss the consolidation of the Delhi Sultanate in India during the 13thcentury.

A.    The period between 1206-1290 was the formative years of establishment and consolidation of the Delhi Sultanate. It was marked by a prolonged, multi-cornered conflict within the Ghorian ruling class as well as against the renewed Rajput resurgence. Muhammad Ghori's sudden death in 1206 resulted in a tussle for supremacy among his three important generals, Tajuddin Yalduz: Nasiruddin Qubacha and Qutbuddin Aibak. Yalduz held Karman and Sankuran on the route between Afghanistan and upper Sind. Qubacha held the important charge of Uchh, while Aibak had already been deputed as the 'viceroy' of Muhammad Ghori and the overall commander of the army in India.

              Early in brief reign of four years, Aibak (d. 1210) moved his capital to Lahore in order to frustrate Yalduz's ambition of annexing Punjab and thus thwarting his attempt to establish himself in India.

              Aibak was succeeded on the throne by his son-in-law Iltutmish who brought back the capital to Delhi. Large portions of the territories conquered by the Turks had slipped out of control and subjugated Rajput chieftain had withheld tribute and repudiated allegiance. Iltutmish's quarter-century reign (1210-1236) was distinguished by a concerted drive to re-establish the Sultanate's authority on areas that had been lost. in 1215, Yalduz was defeated at Tarain and in 1217 Iltutmish wrested the province of Lahore from Qubacha and placed it under his own governor.

          Though the Mongol presence had upset Iltutmish's plan of consolidation on the north-west, it also created conditions for the destruction of Qubacha who held Uchh. As a consequence, Iltutmish was able to seize Bhatinda, Kuhram, and Sarsuti. About 1228, he launched a two-pronged attack on Multan and Uchh. Unified control over the north-west now became possible for the Delhi Sultanate. In Rajputana, the Turks were able to reclaim Ranthambhor, Mandor, Jalor, Bayana, and Thangir. 

          Iltutnish's death saw sharpened factionalism and intrigue among the Turks. In a period of thirty years, four rulers, (descendants of Iltutmish) occupied the Throne but the actual power remained in the hands of 40 slave officers of Iltutmish. Between 1235-1265 political developments revolved around the conflict between the crown and a military aristocracy, determined to retain its privileged position. 

          The accession of Balban in 1265 provided the Sultanate with an iron-willed ruler. Balban addressed himself to two major objectives:

i) to raise the prestige of the crown through elaborate court ceremonials, and inculcation of Sassanian traditions that distanced the ruler from ordinary folks, converting him into a symbol of awe;(ii) consolidating Turkish power: rebellions

were put down with determination and administrative procedures were streamlined.

Q.  In what ways did Iqtas help in the consolidation and later decline of the Delhi Sultanate? 

A. Iltutmish had introduced a sound system of revenue assignments (iqta) through which the vast bureaucracy was maintained. Feroz Tughluq's reign, however, saw deterioration in its working which had devastating consequences on the Sultanate. During his reign, revenue assignments tended to be hereditary and permanent which was completely different than before. This applied even to the royal soldiers. The tendency of the principal assignees to sub-assign their territories also increased greatly during later years. All this had deep implications. It meant not only loss of vast revenue resources to the state exchequer but by making the assignments permanent the Sultan allowed the assignees to develop strong local roots which led to wide-scale corruption and turbulence besides allowing them to have their area of influence independent of central authority. These steps led to the rise of regional states.

Rise of Regionalism - The signs of physical disintegration were witnessed for the first time during Muhammad Tughluq's reign in 1347 A.D. with the establishment of the Bahamani kingdom. But the Sultanate remained intact for at least nearly fifty years when finally the Timurid invasion (1398 A.D.) exposed its weakness. It provided ample opportunity for the nobles to establish their own areas of influence, independent of the Sultan. Governors like Khwaja Jahan (Jaunpur) in 1394 Khwaja in 1394, Dilawar Khan (Malwa) in 1401, Zafar Khan (Gujarat) in 1407, and some regions in Rajasthan also declared their independence during the 15th century. Bengal was already a semi-independent kingdom since the days of Bughra Khan. The Sultanate practically shrank to the radius of 200 miles around Delhi. It had deep implications.

                Loss of the fertile provinces of Bengal, Malwa, Jaunpur, and Gujarat curtailed greatly the vast revenue resources of the state. That, in turn, disabled the center to wage long wars and organize campaigns against the refractory elements. The situation became so critical under the Sayyaids & the Lodis that even for regular revenue extractions the Sultans had to send yearly campaigns.

Q.  What innovations did Alauddin Khalji introduce in the land revenue administration? Did he succeed in eliminating the intermediaries? 

A.  There were three groups of the rural aristocracy they were - khot, muqaddam, and Chaudhuri who collected land revenue (kharaj) from the peasants on behalf of the state and deposited the same with the officials of the diwan-i wizarat. For this service, they were allowed perquisites (haqq-i khoti) as remuneration by the state which consisted of being exempted from the revenue of a portion of land held by them. Also, they took something from the peasants as their share of the produce . Besides land revenue (kharaj), every cultivator had to pay house tax (ghari) and cattle or grazing tax. As a result of financial powers, the intermediaries had become

intractable-always in readiness for rebellion. Allauddin leveled the following main charges against them:

a) They did not pay the revenue themselves on that portion of their land which was not exempt from assessment; rather they shifted their 'burden' onto the peasantry, that is, they realized additional levy from the peasants besides the fixed demand of the state in order to pay their own dues.

b) They did not pay the grazing tax.

c) The ill-gotten 'excess of wealth' had made them so arrogant that they flouted the orders of the revenue officials by not going to the revenue office even when summoned to render accounts.

                As a result, the Sultan had to strike at their resources for economic and political reasons. The measures taken by him were as follows:

i) The magnitude of the state demand was set at half the produce of the land. The land was to be measured (masahat), and the land revenue fixed on the yield of each unit of the area. The term used was Wafa-i biswa (Wafa = yield; biswa =1/20th of a bigha). Most probably, it was levied separately on the holding of each individual cultivator.

ii) The intermediaries and the peasants alike were to pay the same standard of the demand (50%) without any distinction, be they intermediaries or 'ordinary peasant' (balahar).

iii) The perquisites of intermediaries were disallowed.

iv) The grazing and the house tax were to be taken from the intermediaries also.

The measures taken were successful, though the peasants were protected now from the economic oppression of the intermediaries, the former had to pay a higher rate of taxation than they did earlier. Since the rate was uniform in a sense it was regressive taxation. Thus the state gained at the cost of the intermediaries, leaving the peasants in the lurch.

Q.   Critically examine the salient features of revenue administration under the Delhi Sultans. 
A.    Above answer 

Q.  Describe the central administrative machinery of the Delhi Sultans. 

A.   The central administrative machinery of the Sultanate consisted of the nobles controlling various offices with the Sultan at the helm of affairs. 

  The Sultan - The Delhi Sultans could make civil and political regulations for public welfare. Khutba and Sikka were recognized as important attributes of sovereignty. The khutba was the formal sermon following the congregational prayer on Fridays wherein the name of the Sultan was mentioned as the head of the community.

Coinage was the ruler's prerogative his name was inscribed on the coins (Sikka). The Sultanate witnessed a rapid rise and fall of dynasties. The Sultan, or a contender to the throne, could only keep himself in power with the support of the nobles who were themselves divided into numerous groups. 

The Wizarat (Finance) - 

              The wazir, as the head of the diwan-i wizarat, was the most important figure in the central administration. Though he was one of the four important departmental heads, he exercised a general supervisory authority over others. The wizarat organized the collection of revenue, exercised control over expenditure, kept

accounts, disbursed salaries and allotted revenue assignments (iqta) at Sultan's order. There were several officials who helped the wizarat such as the mushif-i mumalik or the accountant-general and the mustaufi-i mumalik or the auditor-general.

The Diwan-i Arz

The diwan-i arz or military department was headed by the ariz-i mumalik. He was responsible for the administration of military affairs. He inspected the troops maintained by the iqta-holders. He also supervised the commissariat duties (supply and transport) of the Sultan's army.

Other Departments

The diwan-i Insha' looked after State correspondence. It was headed by Dahir-i mumalik. This department dealt with all correspondence between the Sultan and other rulers, and between the Sultan and provincial governments. It issued farmans

and received letters from subordinate officials.

The barid-i mumalik was the head of the State news-agency. He had to keep informed of all that was happening in the Sultanate. The administrative subdivisions had local barids who sent regular newsletters to the central office. The barids reported matters of state - wars, rebellions. local affairs, finances, the state of agriculture, etc. Apart from the barids, another set of reporters existed who were known as munhiyan.

The diwan-i risalat was headed by the sadr-us sudur. He was the highest religious officer. He took care of the ecclesiastical affairs and appointed qazi. He approved various grants like waqf for religious and educational institutions, wazifa and idrar to the learned and the poor.

The Sultan headed the judiciary and was the final court of appeal in both civil and criminal matters. Next to him was the qazi-ul mumalik (or qazi-ul quzzat), the chief judge of the Sultanate. The muhatsibs (public censors) assisted the judicial department. Their task was to set that there was no public infringement of the tenets of Islam. 

Slaves and Karkhanas

Slaves were an important feature of the royal household. Alauddin Khalji owned 50,000 slaves, while Feroz Tughluq is reputed to have had 1.80.000 slaves. During his reign, a separate department of slaves (diwan-i bandagan) was set up. The slaves were used for personal service and acted as body-guards. 

              The needs of the royal household were met through karkhanas. Under Feroz Tughluq there were 36 karkhanas. Each karkhana was supervised by a noble who had the rank of a malik or khan, and a mutasarrif who was responsible for the accounts and acted as the immediate supervisor. A separate diwan or accounts office existed for the karkhanas. The karkhanas manufactured articles for Imperial household as well as for military purposes. There were weavers to manufacture cloth required by the court and for making robes of honor to be given in gift to the favored ones. It must be remembered, however, that articles produced in the royal karkhanas were not commodities, i.e. not for sale in the market. Nobles, too, maintained their own karkhanas.

Q.  Examine the nature of the Sultanate ruling class.

A.  At the time of the Ghorian invasions, north India was divided into a number of principalities ruled by rais and ranas (local chiefs) and at the village level, khots,  muqaddams (village headman) and Chaudhari. 

COMPOSITION OF THE RULING CLASS

The early Turkish ruling class was very much in the nature of a co-sharer of political and financial powers with the Sultans. In the beginning, the nobles (amirs) were practically independent in distant areas of the conquered territories where they were sent by the Centre as governors. The latter was designated muqti or wali and their territories were known as iqtas. Gradually, the practice began of transferring muqtis from one iqta to another. Many of the early Turkish nobles and Sultans (such as Aibak and Iltutmish) had started their early career as slaves but they received letters of manumission (khat-i Azadi) before becoming Sultans. One such was Qutbuddin Aibak. On his death in A.D. 1210, Ilturmish, one of his favored slaves, seized Delhi and set himself up as Sultan. The Sultans needed the support of the nobility to establish and maintain themselves in power. For instance, Iltutmish came to the throne with the support of the nobles of Delhi. The Turkish nobles played an important part in elevating Sultans to the throne and supporting contenders to the throne. The early Turkish nobility sought to emphasize their exclusiveness and their monopoly to rule. Efforts by other social groups to challenge their monopoly were resented and resisted. The nobles of Iltutmish called turkan-i-chihilgani ("The Forty") wielded considerable power-after his death. They were an important group, and efforts by the Sultans to incorporate other groups were met with much resistance.

            There was a change in the composition of nobles during the Khalji era. Alauddin Khalji further eroded the power of the older Turkish nobility by bringing in new groups such as the Mongols, Indians, and Abyssinians. This trend towards a broadening of the composition of the ruling class continued during the rule of the Tughluqs.

             Under Muhammad Tughluq, apart from the Indians and the Afghans, the ruling class became unprecedentedly more heterogenous with the entry of larger numbers of foreign elements, especially the Khurasani. Even non-Muslim, as well as the converted Indians, were included in the nobility.

           The Afghans were frequently recruited into the feudal bureaucracy of the Delhi Sultanate. With the coming of the Lodis (145 1-1 526), the Afghan predominance got enlarged.

            It is significant to note that every Sultan sought to form and organize a group of nobles that would be personally loyal to him. This obviated the necessity of depending upon previous groups whose loyalty was suspect. But one thing was quite certain that every group tried to capture the attention of the Sultan-whether weak or strong because all privileges and power issued forth from the sovereign. This, in turn, went to a great extent in strengthening gradually the position of the Sultan himself if he was a man of strong will.

Q.  Discuss the factors responsible for the disintegration of the Delhi Sultanate. 

A.        One political reason for the decline of the Sultanate was the absence of any well established and universally accepted law of succession. This was in line with the entire history of the Islamic polity. As long as a Sultan was strong and was able to gain the support of some groups of nobles, he could continue with some superficial semblance of dynastic stability. Dissensions and conflicts amongst the ruling groups might remain apparently dormant in such circumstances, but at the slightest opportunity, their internal struggle would come to the force often in a violent

fashion. Initially, the iqta system served the central authority: its elements of transfer and non-permanence ensured the Sultan's power. On the other hand, the gradual disappearance of these principles, especially during Feroz Tughluq's rule, paved the way for the steady dissipation of the state's authority. The upshot was the emergence of autonomous and, then, independent political centers in different regions.

Some of the factors were-

1. No clear and well-defined law of succession developed in the Sultanate. The hereditary principle was accepted 'but not adhered to invariably. There was no rule that only the eldest son would succeed (primogeniture). In one case, even a daughter was nominated (for example, Raziya Sultan). 

                Thus, in the absence of any succession rule in the very beginning intrigues surfaced to usurp power: After Aibak's death, it was not his son Aram Shah but his slave and son-in-law Iltutmish who captured the throne. Iltutmish's death (1236 AID.) was followed by a long period of struggle and strife when finally Balban usurped the throne. 

2. The conflict between Nobility and Sultan

3. Crisis in revenue administration.

4. Rise of regional states.

EHI - 3

2nd Part
Block-2

Q.  Analyze the social organization of early medieval India with special reference to the Varna system. 

A.  The major economic forces of the period were largescale land grants, a decline of trade, commerce, and urban life; the paucity of money, agrarian expansion & growing agrarian character of society, and the emergence of relatively closed local units of production and consumption. On this basis evolved a social structure broadly characterized by a sizable ruling landed aristocracy, intermediaries and a large body of the impoverished peasantry. The unequal distribution of landed property and power led to the emergence of new social groups and ranks which cut across varna divisions like a brahmana, kshatriya, vaisya, and sudra. The other important changes in the social structure involved the emergence and proliferation of new castes, the hardening of caste relations and the acculturation of the tribes.

The post-eighth century social organization was marked by -

#  modifications in the varna system such as the transformation of Shudras into cultivators thereby bringing them closer to the vaishyas,

#  newly founded Brahmanical order in Bengal and South India wherein the intermediary varna were absent, and finally, the rise of the new literate class struggling for a place in the varna order,

# phenomenal increase in the rise of new mixed castes,

# unequal distribution of land and military power, which, in turn, accounts for the emergence of feudal ranks cutting across varna distinctions, and increasing evidence of social tensions.

        The early medieval period was characterized by the emergence and spread of new jatis (castes). The increase in the number of new castes affected the Brahmanas, the kshatriyas, the Kayastha and the Sudras. The number of mixed castes and of the untouchable castes increased enormously. The transformation of craft guilds into castes as a result of the decline of trade and of urban centers and the localized hereditary character of the crafts helped the process of the formation of new jatis. The Vishnudharmottara Purana, a work of the eighth century, mentions that thousands of mixed castes were produced as a result of the union of Vaisya women with men of lower castes.

Kayasthas - The scribe or the Kayastha community was a product of the socio-economic forces of the times. Land grants involved the transfer of land revenues and land to Brahmanas, religious establishments and officials. This and other complex administrative functions created the need for a body of scribes and record keepers who were employed to draft assignment of land and keep details of land transfer, including various items of revenue. This difficult job was carried out by a class of writers who were known variously as Kayastha, Karana, karanika, pustapala, Chitragupta, aksapatalika, etc.

The untouchables

A sizable section of the Sudras was rising in social and economic status after their association with agriculture, and sections of the Vaisyas, particularly those at the lower end, were descending to the level of the Sudras. Thus, there was a change in the relative positions of the two lower varnas. The Sudras were no longer slaves and servants; they emerged as tenants, share-croppers, and cultivators.

Absence of Intermediary Varnas in Bengal and South India 

removing distinctions between the vaishyas and Shudras resulted in the emergence of a social order typified by an absence of intermediary in Bengal and South India. The new Brahmanical order in these areas provided mainly for brahmans and Shudras. This may have been partly due to the influence of non-Brahmanical religions in these regions. However, the nature of the progress of Brahmanism also contributed to this development.

 Varnasamkara

Varnasamkara meant the inter-mixing and /or union of varnas/castes, normally not socially approved, leading to the emergence of mixed castes, which symbolized social disorder.

With the substantial increase in the number of new castes greater rigidity was introduced into the caste system and inter-caste marriages came to be viewed with disfavor. Earlier, anuloma marriages or marriages between a bridegroom from an upper caste and a bride from a lower caste were sanctioned. It was the pratiloma manage (the reverse of anuloma) which was censured. However, increasingly anuloma marriages too were not favored.

Q.  Write a note on various styles of temple architecture. 

Q.  Discuss the salient features of different styles of temple architecture. 

A.  Indian temples symbolized the very ethos, of the life-style of people through the Millennium. 

Major Styles -

The ancient texts on Indian temple architecture broadly classify them into three orders. The terms Nagara, Dravida, and Vesara indicate a tendency to highlight the typological features of temples and their geographical distribution.          

           Nagara and Dravida temples are generally identified with the northern and southern temple styles respectively. All of northern India, from the foothills of the Himalayas to the central plateau of the Deccan is furnished with temples in the northern style. The Dravida followed a more consistent development track and was confined to the most southerly, portions of the sub-continent, especially between the Krishna river and Kanyakumari. The Vesara style was confined to the country between the Vindhyas and the river Krishna. 

Shapes, Plans, and Language of Temples

Each temple style has its own distinctive technical language, though some terms are common but applied to different parts of the building in each style. The sanctuary, which is the main part is called the vimana where the garbhagriha or the inner sanctum containing the main presiding deity is located. The part surmounting the vimana is known as the shikhara. The other elements of the ground plan are -mandapa or pavilion for the assembly of devotees; antarala, which is a vestibule connecting the vimana and mandapa & the pradakshiapath, i.e. circumarnbulatory passage surrounding these. 

Ecological Setting, Raw Materials and Regionalisation

Temples have evolved depending upon the region and availability of raw material. In the relatively heavy rainfall areas of the western coast of India and Bengal, temples have sloping tiled roofs, giving rise to timber gables. To overcome the hazards of snow and hail, wooden sloped roofs are also employed in the temples of the Himalayan belt. In general, the hotter and drier the climate, the flatter the roof; open porches provide shaded seating and pierced stone. .screens are utilized to filter the light. Apart from the ecological influences availability of local raw materials played a dominant role in techniques of construction and carving.

Presiding Deities

Temples were dedicated not only to two great gods of the Brahmanical pantheon, viz., Shiva and Vihqu but to the Great Mother Goddess as well. Depiction of divinities big and small, benevolent and malevolent, celestial and terrestrial, atmospheric and heavenly, devas and asuras and countless folk deities such as yakshas, vakshis,' apsaras and kinnaris were frequently represented. Even animal or bird 'vehicles' (vahanas) of these divinities shed their muteness and become eloquent carriers of meaningful symbolism. Thus, Nandi, the agricultural bull of Shiva is fully expressive of the god's sexuality; the tiger, the mount of Durga embodies her fierce strength and aggressiveness. The river goddesses, Ganga and Yamma are identified by their vahanas, I.e crocodile & tortoise respectively. Lakshmi's association with

elephants, lotus flowers and water not only symbolize her popularity as the goddess of fortune but more importantly as a divinity conveying the magical power of agricultural fertility - an aspect that goes back to the days of the Rigveda. Swan carrying Saraswati typified not only her grace and elegance but the tremendous intellectual discerning capacity which is an integral element of this goddess of learning.

Q.  Describe the role played by temples on spreading the cultural ethos.

A.  To begin with, general education within the temple was of great importance. Many endowments to temples were specifically made for the establishment of college which were incorporated into temple complexes. The teaching of such subjects as grammar and astrology as well as recital and teaching of texts such as the Vedas, the Epics Ramayana, and the Mahabharata and the Puranas were encouraged. Music and dance generally formed part of the daily ritual of the temples and during special celebrations and annual festivals, these played a particularly dominant role. Large

temples would maintain their own musicians - both vocal and instrumental, together with dancers, actors, and teachers of performing arts. The life-size delineations of such musicians in a tenth-century temple at Khajuraho as well as in the Sun temple at Konarka and nata mandir (dancing hall) formed an absolutely integral element in the Orissan and other temples also provide eloquent testimonies to that effect. Many temples had regular festivals that provided opportunities for the mingling of mythology and folklore, as for instance, the annual hthayatra of the Jagarinatha temple at Pun. The undertaking of pilgrimage (tirtha yatra) is yet another mechanism through which the participation of the community in temple activities was facilitated. Temples provided work and the means of livelihood for a large number of persons, they were able to exert great influence upon the economic life of people. Religious establishments became centers of learning.

Q. Analyze the growth of the Bhakti movement in medieval India.

A. Bhakti movement constitutes a very important chapter in the socio-cultural history of India. From the mid-sixth century, Shaiva and Vaishnava saints (Nayanmars and Alvars respectively) and their followers practiced and propagated bhakti in the countryside & went to pilgrim centers singing and dancing. Originating in sixth century Kanchipuram, the area under the Pallavas, it had traversed the full length of Tarnilaham by the end of the ninth century and, engulfed all the major kingdoms of the Cholas, Pandyans and the Cheras. It, later on, engulfed the whole of North as a result of the impetus given by the Tamil saints. The spread of the movement is intimately associated with the temple base.

  Characteristics of the Bhakti Movement

1.  There was no need to perform rituals, yagas or complicated methods to praise god. One could worship God by love and devotion.

2.  There was no need to worship different idols or deities. Bhakti movement emphasized belief in one god.

3.  Bhakti saints emphasized stress on equality of all castes. They said that no one is high or low in front of god. Everyone is equal.

4.  Due to stress on castes' equality, other religions came closer to the Hindu religion. This emphasized Hindu Muslim unity.

5.  Before the bhakti movement, the Sanskrit language was used to perform yagas or rituals. Religious books or scriptures were in the Sanskrit language. This language was mostly understood by Brahmans. Common people were not able to understand this language. But bhakti saints preached in the language of common people. So it became easy to understand for everyone.

6.  Before the bhakti movement, it was plenty of complicated rituals to realize god or have the grace of God. But bhakti saints preached everyone that you only need a true, honest and kind heart to reach and realize god.

7.  Due to this movement religion became a matter of spirituality and devotion; instead of rituals and propaganda.

There were many factors that helped in the development of the Bhakti movement. Some important factors are as follows:

1. During the medieval period, Hindus were mistreated by Muslim rulers. Hindus were forced to convert their religion to Islam and imposed jaziya on them. To preserve their religion, Hindus supported and strongly contributed to the bhakti movement.

2. Hindu society was divided into lower castes and upper castes. The people of lower castes had to suffer discrimination, injustice, and cruelties by the persons of the upper castes. So, people of lower castes supported bhakti saints because these saints preached equality of castes.

3. Rituals and complicated methods were performed to praise god. But due to insufficient knowledge and lack of money, a common man was not able to do such kind of things. Bhakti saints preached the path of devotion and discarded all rituals. Bhakti saints told a common man that to realize God, one needs only a kind, loving and devotional hearth and nothing else.

4. There were many evils in Hindu society. Bhakti saints tried to remove these evils and emphasized on the moral life. So everybody supported them.

5. Due to mechanical methods of rituals, the Hindu religion had become a dead religion. There was no scope for any new idea, creativity, and thought. Bhakti saints tried to revive this religion. They make it more intellectual; instead of mechanical. This was a rebirth of Hinduism.

                The Alvars and Nayanars led some of the earliest bhakti movements (c. sixth century). Alvars – those who are “immersed” in devotion to Vishnu while Nayanars – who were devotees of Shiva. They traveled from place to place singing hymns in Tamil praising their gods. The Alvars and Nayanars initiated a movement of protest against the caste system and the dominance of Brahmanas or at least attempted to reform the system. This is supported by the fact that bhaktas or disciples hailed from diverse social backgrounds ranging from Brahmanas to artisans and cultivators and even from castes considered “untouchable”. The Nalayira Divyaprabandham (“Four Thousand Sacred Compositions”) – one of the major anthologies of compositions of the 12 Alvars compiled by the 10th Century. It was frequently described as the Tamil Veda, thus claiming that the text was as significant as the four Vedas in Sanskrit that was cherished by the Brahmanas.

Q.  Define Hero stones. Does change in the styles of hero stones reflects the change in the status of the hero being memorized. 

A.  The hero-stones are found in most parts of the Indian sub-continent. There has been a long and almost continuous history of these relics for more than 1500 years and extends to both Brahmanical and non-Brahmanical religions. They are locally called viragals, natugals, paliyas, Govardhana stambhes, Kirti-stambhas, Chhaya-stambhas, or merely as chhatris, stambhas devalis, etc. These tablets or pillars fall into several groups originating in ritual or cult practices as well as religious or social customs of its patrons :

#  The Chhaya-stambha is among the earliest archaeological evidence, and it seems to be rooted in the social practices of the Buddhists.

#  The nisidhi represents the ritual death practices exclusively by the Jains.

#  The viragals or at least the currency of this term-cross religious demarcation, if

not the conventional geographical limits of southern India.

#  The Kirti-stamba, paliya, chatri, devali and stambha share the country between the Himalayas and the Vindhyas-mostly in Gujarat and Rajasthan.

      The change in the style of hero-stones seems to reflect a change in the status of the hero being memorialized. Many of the earlier stones from Tamil Nadu come from the North Arcot district which is known to have been at that time an area of Livestock breeding, where cattle-raiding would be one method of increasing wealth. Later, elaborate stones commemorated heroes who claimed to belong to the upper caste groups, often claim Kshatriya status. The indication of the hero's religious sect was due to the influence of the bhakti sects. Hero stones are mostly found in upland areas, in the vicinity of passes across hills, and in areas regarded as frontier zones, pastoral region, outskirts of forests and 'tribal areas' of Central India. Hero-stone is relatively Infrequent in the large agricultural tracts of the Indus and the Ganga valleys a& in the agriculturally rich delta areas of the peninsula.

Q.  The Nayankara System 

Q.  Critically examine the formation and consolidation of lineage power in the Deccan.

A.   The emergence of new ruling lineages was a continuous process in the Deccan. The inscriptions issued between the eighth and the thirteenth centuries speak of the emergence of several major & minor ruling powers such as the Rashtrakutas, Chalukyas, Silaharas, Kakatiyas, Sevunas (Yadavas), Hoysalas, etc. The period in the Deccan was characterized not only by the emergence of the new ruling lineages but also by the branching off of the existing ones. Thus, apart from the main Chalukyan house ruling from Badami, there were collateral Chalukya lines ruling in various places such as Lata, Vengi as also a line bearing the Chalukya name in vemulavada. There were some individual members who claim to belong to the Chalukya kula or vamsha in different localities in Karnataka. Similarly, apart from the main Sevuna lineage ruling from Devagiri, there was a minor Sevuna family ruling over a territorial division called Masavadi. Similarily the Gangas & the Nolambas had also thrown off many junior branches. The branches of a ruling line continued to be operative for centuries even after the mainline disappeared from the arena. An example can be cited in the Vengi line of the Chalukyas, which was brought into being by Pulakesin-II of the Badami Chalukyas. The minor branches of the Gangas, the Kadambas, and others also outlived the main lines of their respective families. The status, power and territorial extent of the lineages w-re not uniform. Sometimes the relationship between the lineage and its territory was expressed in the form of the name of the area in which the lineage was dominant as for example the Gangavadi, Nolambavadi, etc. The changing distribution patterns of ruling lineages did not necessarily correspond to static territorial units. For example, the Kalachuris who appear in the sixth century A.D. as the rulers of a vast area comprising Malwa, Gujarat, Konkan, Maharashtra, and Vidarbha also established several nuclei of power as in Tripuri (near Jabalpur) and Ratanpur in the upper Narmada basin. One of their branches ventured into a remote area of Eastern India which came to be known as Sarayupar. A segment of the Kalachuri line migrated to Karnataka. Kalachuris of Karnataka claim to be the descendants of the Kalachuris of central India.

              The formation and mobilization of lineage power developed along with a variety of ways. A lineage power could be brought into being by simply replacing another. The Vengi line of the Chalukyas was brought into existence by eliminating the erstwhile powerholders of the Telugu speaking country when Pulakesin-11 of the Badami Chalukya line conquered it. Second, it could involve the settlement of new areas by an immigrant line and change of the economic pattern of the region. For example, Kalanjara having been conquered by the Pratiharas and subsequently by the Rashtrahtas, some members of the Kalachuri line living there migrated southward to seek new pastures. A segment of it migrated towards the forested tract of Kuntala and settled at Mangaliveda now in the Sholapur district of Maharashtra.

EHI - 3

1st Part

Block - 1

Q.  Describe different kinds of Land grants or Agrarian settlements in the early medieval period ( 8th - 12th).

A. There were different kinds of land grants -

    Brahmadeya - A brahmadeya represents a grant of land either in individual plots or whole villages were given away to Brahmans making them landowners or land controllers. It was meant either to bring virgin land under cultivation or to integrate existing agricultural settlements into the new economic order dominated

by a Brahman proprietor. The practice of land grants as brahmadeya was initiated by the ruling dynasties and then followed by chiefs, feudatories, etc. Brahmadeya facilitated agrarian expansion because they were :

#  exempted from various taxes or dues either entirely or at least in the initial stages of settlement (e.g. for 12 years);

#  given different kinds of ever-growing privileges. The ruling families derived an economic advantage in the form of the extension of the resource base, moreover by creating brahmadeyas they also, gained ideological support for their political power.

              Brahmadeyas were invariably located near major irrigation works such as tanks or lakes. Sometimes, two or more settlements were clubbed together to form a brahmadeya or an agrahara.

Secular Grants: From the seventh century onwards, officers of the state were also being remunerated through land grants. It created another class of landlords who were not Brahmanas. Literary works dealing with central India, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Bihar and Bengal between the tenth and twelfth centuries make frequent references

to various kinds of grants to ministers, kinsmen and those who rendered military Services to the state. The rajas, rajaputras, mahasamantas, etc. mentioned in Pala land charters were mostly vassals connected with land. The incidence of land grants to state officials varies from one region to another.

Devadanas: It represents large scale gifts of land to the religious establishments, both Brahmanical and non-Brahmanical. Through the process of acculturation, these centers helped in integrating various peasant and tribal settlements. They also integrated various socio-economic groups through service tenures or remuneration through temple lands. Temple lands were leased out to tenants, who paid a higher share of crop produce to the temple. Such lands were also managed either by the sabha of the brahmadeya or mahajanas of the agrahara settlements. In non - Brahmana settlements temples became the central institution. Here temple lands came to be administered by the temple executive committees composed of land-owning non-Brahmans the Velalas of Tamil Nadu. 

The supervision of temple lands was in the hands of Brahmana and non-Brahmana landed elite. The control of irrigation sources was also a major function of the local bodies dominated by landed elite groups. Thus the Brabmana, the temple and higher strata of non-Brahmanas as landlords, employers and holders of superior rights in land became the central feature of the early medieval agrarian organization. 

Q.  Critically Examine the nature of the early medieval economy(8th- 13th).

A.  1) Emergence of hierarchical landed intermediaries. Vassals and officers of state and other secular assignee had military obligations and feudal titles. Different intermediaries were employed by these donees to get their land cultivated which led to the growth of hierarchy among landed elites. It was a hierarchy of landed aristocrats, tenants, sharecroppers and cultivators. This hierarchy was also reflected in the power/administrative structure, where a sort -of lord-vassal relationship emerged. In other words, Indian feudalism consisted of the grossly unequal distribution of land and its produce.

2)  Another important feature was the prevalence of forced labor. The right of extracting forced labor (vishti) is believed to have been exercised by the Brahmana and other grantees of land. Forced labor was originally a prerogative of the King or the state. It was transferred to the grantees, petty officials, village authorities and others. In the Chola inscriptions alone, there are more than one hundred references to forced labor. Even the peasants and artisans come within the jurisdiction of vishti. As a result, a kind of serfdom emerged, in which agricultural laborers were reduced to the position of semi-serfs. 

3) Due to the growing claims of greater rights over land by rulers & intermediaries, peasants also suffered a curtailment of their land rights. Many were reduced to the position of tenants facing an ever-growing threat of eviction. A number of peasants have only shared, croppers. The strain on the peasantry was also caused by the burden of taxation, coercion, and the increase in their indebtedness.

4) The surplus was extracted through various methods. With the rise of new property relations, new mechanisms of economic subordination also evolved. The increasing burden is evident in the mentioning of more than fifty levies in the inscription of Rajaraja Chola. Thus newer methods were devised to extract more from the peasantry.

5) It was relatively a closed village economy. The transfer of human resources along with the land to the beneficiaries shows that in such villages the peasants, craftsmen, and artisans were attached to the villages and hence were mutually dependent. Their attachment to the land and to service grants ensured control over

them by the beneficiaries. Thus, Indian feudalism like the emergence of hierarchical landed intermediaries, the prevalence of forced labor, curtailment of land rights of peasants, economic subordination by surplus extraction and existence of a relatively closed village economy.

Q.  Critically examine the regional pattern of the emergence of urban centers in the 9 the-13th centuries. What role did proliferation of land grants and bhakti play in the growth of urbanization in the early medieval period? 

A.  In a vast country like India, there are a lot of regional variations in the pattern of emergence and growth of urban centers. 

1) Rural Centres Transformed into Urban Centres - The brahmadeyas and devadanas which are important sources of agrarian Urban Settlements during the early medieval period provided the nuclei of urban growth. The Brahmana and temple settlements were clustered together in certain key areas of agricultural production. Such centers, initially rural, became points of convergence of people involved in trade, agriculture, and pilgrimage. Examples of such centers of urban growth are the Chola city of Kumbakonam developed out of agrarian clusters and became a multi-temple urban center between the ninth and twelfth centuries. Kanchipuram is a second major example of such an urban complex.

2) Market Centres & Trade-Network - Early medieval centuries also witnessed the emergence of urban centers of relatively modest dimensions, as market centers, trade centers (fairs, etc.) which were primarily points of the exchange network. The range of interaction of such centers varied from small agrarian hinterlands to regional commercial hinterlands. Some of them emerged due to the exchange needs of the Nadu. A fairly large number of such centers were founded by ruling families or were established by royal sanction and were named after the rulers, a feature common to all regions in South India. Such centers had the suffix Pura or pattana. 

               Nagarams located on important trade routes and at the points of intersection developed into a more important trade and commercial center of the region. They were ultimately brought into a network of intra-regional and inter-regional trade as well as overseas trade through the itinerant merchant organizations and the royal ports. Such development occurred uniformly throughout peninsular India between the tenth and twelfth centuries.  The

nagarams linked the ports with political and administrative centers and craft centers in the interior. In Karnataka, nagarams emerged more as points of exchange in the trading network than as regular markets for agrarian regions.

              Market centers also developed in Rajasthan & western parts of MP. Rajasthan provided the main commercial links between Gujarat, Central India, and the Ganga valley. Such links were maintained through towns like Pali, which connected the seacoast towns like Dwaraka and Broach with Central and North India. Gujarat continued to be the major trading region of Western India where early historic ports like Broach continued to flourish as important trade centers in early medieval times. Major craft centers that developed in response to inter-regional trade were weaving centers in Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu.

Sacred/Pilgrimage Centres - The idea of a pilgrimage to religious centers developed in the early medieval period due to the spread of the cult of Bhakti. Its expansion in different regions through a process of acculturation and interaction between the Brahmanical or Sanskritic forms of worship and folk or popular cults cut across narrow sectarian interests. Pilgrimage centers developed urban features due to a mobile pilgrim population, trade and royal patronage. 

              Pushkara near Ajmer in Rajasthan was a sacred tirtha of regional importance with a dominant Vaishnava association. Kasi (Banaras) acquired a pan-Indian character due to its greater antiquity and importance as a Brahmanical sacred center. In South India, Srirangam (Vaishnava), Chidambaram (Shaiva) and Madurai (Shaiva), etc. developed as regional pilgrimage centers, while Kanchipuram became a part of an all India pilgrimage network. While Melkote was a regional sacred center in Karnataka. Similarly, Tirupati was initially an important sacred- center for the Tamil Vaishnavas but acquired a pan-Indian character later in the Vijayanagara period.

                The early medieval urbanization is sometimes characterized as "temple urbanization" particularly in the context of south India. Sacred centers also provided important links in the commerce of a region as temples and the mathas attached to them were the biggest consumers of luxury articles and valuable goods.

Royal Centres or Capitals -

Royal centers of the seats of power of the ruling families were a major category of urban centers in early medieval India. Some of them had been the seats of royal power even in the early historic period, for example, in the Janapadas of North India or in the traditional polities of South India. Royal families also developed their own ports, which were the main ports of entry into their respective territories and which also linked them with international commerce. Some representative examples are:

#  Vatapi and Vengi of the Chalukyas in the northern Karnataka and Andhra.

#  Kanchipuram of the Pallavas with their royal.the port at Mamallapuram (Mahabalipuram).

#  Madurai of the Pandyas with Korkai as their port.

#  Tanjavur of the Colas with Nagappattinam as their port.

#  Kalyana of the Western Chalukyas, Dvarasamudra of the Hoysalas 

#  Warangal of the Kakatiyas with Motupalli at their port.

Warangal was a rare example of a fortified royal city in South India.

Examples of royal centers in North India are:

#  the Gurjara Partihara capital at Kanyakubja (Kanauj).

#  Khajuraho of the Chandellas.

#  Dhara of the Paramaras 

Q Discuss the standard of living, clothing pattern and social life of the urban classes in medieval India. 

or

Q.  Discuss in detail the two phases of the trade and commerce during the 8th to 12th centuries(500). OR

Discuss in brief the trading activities in India between 9thto 13thcenturies(250). OR

Discuss the chief features of the trading economy during c. A.D. 700 to A.D. 900 (500).

A. The two phases of the trade and commerce during the early medieval times can be divided as - 

1) c.700-900 A.D.. and

2) c 900-1300 A.D.

Briefly, the two phases are marked by :

a) relative decline of trade, metallic currency, urban centers and a closed village economy in the first phase, and

b) reversal of most of the aforesaid tendencies in the second phase. During the second phase, trade picked up momentum not only within the country b$t in relation to other countries as well. Metal coins were no longer as scarce as they were in the first phase.

THE FIRST PHASE (c.A.D. 700-900)

 The period from A.D. 750-1000 witnessed the wide-spread practice of granting land not only to priests and temples but also to warrior chiefs and state officials like Samantas, mahasamanta, maha-mandaleshvara, etc. leading to a hierarchy of landlords. However, they were different from the actual tillers of the soil and lived on the surplus extracted from the peasants who were hardly left with anything to trade. It resulted in the growth of rural economy where local needs were being satisfied locally. The relative dearth of metal coins further decimated trading during this time. 

Relative Decline of Trade

Internally, the fragmentation of political authority and the dispersal of power to local chiefs, religious grantees, etc. had an adverse effect on trade and commerce on the land grant economy. Many of the intermediary landlords, particularly of less productive areas, resorted to loot and plunder or excessive taxes on goods passing through their territories. Which further dampened the enthusiasm of traders and merchants. No less discouraging were the frequent wars among the potential ruling chiefs. Some other factors which led to the decline of trade with other countries were - 

1) The disintegration of the Roman empire which was one of the major trading partner and importer of goods had a cascading impact on trade.

2) Trade has also affected adversely in the middle of the sixth century when the people of Byzantine (Eastern Roman Empire) learned the art of making silk. India thus. lost an important market which had fetched her considerable amount of gold in the early centuries of the Christian era.

3)  The decline of foreign trade was also caused by the expansion of Arabs on the North-west frontiers of India in the seventh and eighth centuries. Their presence in the region made overland routes unsafe for Indian merchants.

4) The fights amongst the Tibetans and Chinese during these centuries also affected the flow of goods along the routes in central Asia.

5) The Western coast of India suffered dislocation and disruption of sea trade as the Arabs raided Broach and Thana in the seventh century and destroyed Valabhi an important port on the Saurashtra coast, in the eighth century.

Urban Settlements: Decay

The first phase was also marked by by-the decay and desertion of many towns. It is an important symptom of commercial decline because the towns are primarily the settlements of people engaged in crafts and commerce. As trade declined and the demand for craft-goods slumped, the traders and craftsmen living in towns had to disperse to rural areas for alternative means of livelihood. Thus towns decayed & townsfolk became a part of the village economy. The decay of important towns such as Vaishali, Pataliputra, Varanasi, etc. is evident from the archaeological excavations which reveal the poverty of structure and antiquities. The pan-Indian scene is marked by the desertion of urban centers or their state of decays in the period between the third and eighth centuries. Even those settlements which continued up to the eighth century were deserted thereafter.

                 The commercial activity during the first phase of the early medieval period had declined but did not disappear completely. In fact, trade-in costly and luxury goods meant for the use of kings, feudal chiefs and heads of temples and monasteries continued to exist. The articles such as precious and semi-precious stones. ivory, horses, etc. formed an important part of the long-distance trade. In short, the nature of commercial activity during A.D. 750-1000 was such which catered more to the landed intermediaries and feudal lords rather than the masses.

THE SECOND PHASE (c.A.D.900 - 1300)

This phase is marked by the revival of trade and commerce. It was also the period of agrarian expansion, increased use of money and the reemergence of the market, the economy in which goods were produced for exchange rather than for local consumption. These centuries also witnessed a substantial growth of urban settlements in different parts of the sub-continent.

Crafts and Industry

The growth of agricultural production was supplemented by increased craft production. Increased craft production stimulated the process of both regional and inter-regional exchange. Textile Industry developed as a major economic activity producing coarse as well as fine cotton goods. The oil industry also acquired great importance during this period. An inscription from Karnataka refers to different types of oil pills operated both by men and bullocks.

        Similarly, references to sugarcane cultivation and cane crushers in this period also indicate large scale production of jaggery and other forms of sugar. Besides the agro-based industry, the craftsmanship in metal and leather goods too reached a high level of excellence. The literary sources refer to craftsmen connected with different types of metals such as copper, brass, iron, gold, silver, etc. Iron was also used to manufacture swords, spearheads and other arms and weapons of high quality. Magadha, Benaras, Kalinga, and Saurashtra were known for the manufacture of good quality swords. Gujarat was known for gold and silver embroidery.

Metal currency revival

The revival of trade received considerable help from the reemergence of metal money during this time period. the practice of minting gold coins was revived by Gangeyadera (A.D. 1019;1040), King of Tripuri (in Madhya Pradesh) after a gap of more than four centuries. Govindachandra, the Gahadavala King near Varanasi in Uttar Pradesh, the Chandella rulers Kirttivarmana and Madanavarman in Central India, King Harsha of Kashmir and some Chola Kings in Tamil Nadu also issued gold coins. Reference has already been made above to certain early medieval coin types in Western and Northwestern India. According to one estimate, about nine mints were founded in different parts of Karnataka during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. An important mint functioned at Shrimol (near Jodhpur) in Rajasthan.

Commodities of trade and Consumers

The chief customers of Indian goods were the rich inhabitants of China, Arabia, and Egypt. Many of the Indian goods were exported to Europe via the Mediterranean. Merchants carrying food grains, oil, butter, salt, coconuts, betel leaves, madder, indigo, candied sugar, jaggery, thread cotton fabrics, blankets, metals, spices, etc. from one place to another, and paying taxes and tolls on them. A new class of domestic consumers emerged as a result of large scale landgrants from the eighth century onwards. The priests who earlier subsisted on a meager fee offered at domestic and other rites were now entitled to hereditary enjoyment of vast landed estates, benefices, and rights. This new landowning class, along with the ruling chiefs and rising mercantile class, became an important buyer of luxuries and necessities because of their better purchasing power. Big temples with their vast resources and varied requirements also helped in generating commercial activity. This phenomenon was more marked in South India where many temple sites became important commercial centers. 

Trade Routes and Means of Communication

A vast network of roads connected to different ports, markets, and towns with one another and served as the channel of trade and commerce. Besides roads, the rivers in the plains of Northern India, and the sea route along the Eastern and Western coasts in South India also served as an important means of inter-regional

contacts. A significant development in the post-tenth centuries was the keen interest shown by rulers to keep the highways in their kingdoms safe. They took measures to punish thieves and robbers and provided military as well as monetary help to villagers to protect the traders and travelers passing through their region. They also built new roads to connect important ports and markets in their state and excavated tanks and wells for the benefit of travelers. Trade is an important source of revenue. political authorities had to be concerned about the safety and well being of traders and merchants.

Revival of Towns

The second phase of early medieval India (c.900-1300 A.D.) is marked by a very distinctive revival of urban centers. This revival became an almost all India phenomenon. 

Q.  Give a brief account of various groups of merchants operating during the medieval period. 

Q.  Various groups of traders.-------to do

Q.  What were merchant guilds? Discuss the role played by Aiyyavole guild in the expansion of trading activities in South India. 

Q.  What were guilds? Examine the organization and functions of Aiyyavole and Maninagram.

A.  The guilds were voluntary associations of merchants dealing in the same type of commodity such as grains, textiles, betel leaves, horses, perfumes, etc. They were formed by both local as well as itinerant merchants. The association of local merchants having permanent residence in town was more permanent in nature than

the association of itinerant merchants which was formed only for a specific journey and was terminated at the end of each venture. The guilds framed their own rules and regulations regarding the membership and the code of conduct. They fixed the prices of their goods and could even decide that a specific commodity was not to be sold on a particular day by its members. The two most important merchant guilds of South India were known as the Ayyavole and the Manigraman. Geographically, the area of their operation corresponded to the present-day state of Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and South Andhra Pradesh.

Ayyavole  - The Ayyavole was the guild of merchants in South India. This was a strong body of merchants and contributed to the expansion of trade not only in South India but overseas also. The merchant guild Ayyavole was also known as the guild of "the 500 Swami of Aihole" nanadeshi. In course of outward expansion, the members of the Ayyavole guild interacted with the local markets called nagaram, and promoted commercial activity by collecting agricultural goods from the hinterland and distributing the goods brought from elsewhere. The commercial influence of Ayyavole spread even beyond South India. It is indicated by the inscriptions found at Burma, Java, Sumatra and Sri Lanka. As the mercantile activities of Ayyavole increased, some of its members became quite. rich and powerful, and acquired the title of Samaya Chakravarti. i.e. the emperor of the trading organization.

Manigramam - Another important merchant guild of South India was the Manigramam. It first appeared along the Kerala coast in the ninth century A.D. However, as it gradually came into close contact, with the Ayyavole, it greatly improved upon its inter-regional activities and covered a large part of the peninsula. A ninth-century Tamil inscription found on the West coast of Malaya indicates that it was engaged in the long-distance sea trade from the very beginning. 

Functioning - The guild normally worked under the leadership of a chief who was elected by its members. He performed the functions of a magistrate in deciding the economic affairs of the guild. He could punish, condemn or even expel those members who violated the guild rules. One of his main duties was to deal directly with the King and settle the market tolls and taxes on behalf of his fellow merchants. The growth of corporate activity enabled guild chiefs to consolidate their power and position in society, and many of them acted as the representative of their members on the local administrative councils.

A member of the guild worked under a strict code of discipline and was also robbed of some initiative or action but still, he enjoyed numerous benefits. He received the full backing of the guild in all his economic activities and was, thus, saved from the harassment of local officials. Unlike a hawker or vendor, he had greater credibility in the market on account of his members' ip of the guild.

EHI -01

11th Part

Q- What are the main causes of the revolt of 1857 in India?

A.  - The causes for the revolt of 1987 were -

       1. Economic Causes - The most important cause of popular discontent was the British policy of economically exploiting India, hurting all sections of society. The peasants suffered due to high revenue demands and the strict revenue collection policy. Artisans and craftsmen were ruined by the large-scale influx of cheap British manufactured goods into India which, in turn, made their hand-made goods uneconomical to produce. People who made a living by following religious and cultural pursuits lost their source of livelihood due to the withdrawal of royal patronage caused by the displacement of the old ruling classes. A corrupt and unresponsive administration added to the miseries of the people.

       2. Political Causes - The British policy of territorial annexation led to the displacement of a large number of rulers and chiefs. The vigorous application of the policies of Subsidiary Alliance and Doctrine of Lapse angered the ruling sections of the society. Rulers of these territories became bitter enemies of the British and led to the revolt in their respective territories. They along with the other displaced ruling class were joined by their loyal soldiers and disgruntled Indian soldiers in the British army that spearheaded the revolt.

      3. Social- The social reforms introduced by the British were looked upon with suspicion by the conservative sections of the Indian society. Reforms such as the abolition of ‘Sati’, legalization of widow remarriage and extension of western education to women were looked upon as examples of interference in the social customs of the country. The social discrimination faced by the Indians due to the British attitude of racial superiority also led to much resentment.

      4. Religion - A major cause of the outbreak of the revolt was the fear among the people that the British government was determined to destroy their religion and convert Indians to Christianity. The increasing activities of the Christian missionaries and the actual conversions made by them were taken as proof of this fear. 

      5. Military-  Discontent, and resentment against British rule among Indian soldiers became the immediate cause of the revolt. At that time, the Enfield rifle was introduced in the army. Its cartridges were covered with a greased paper cover. This greased cover had to be bitten off before the cartridge could be loaded into the rifle. The news spread that the grease was made of cow and pig fat. As the Hindus consider the cow sacred and the Muslims do not eat pit’s meat, both these communities were enraged at such a blatant attempt to harm their religion.

Q.-  What are the factors that led to the partition of India.

  A.  The Partition of India was the 1947 partitioning of the British Indian Empire into India and Pakistan. The partition of India was the most significant event in the history of India. Its chief reason was the antic thinking of the Muslims and their communal outlook. The following factors contributed to it - 

       1.   Jinnah and the Muslim League: - He instigated religious passions and fears among the Muslim masses since 1930. He was more concerned with the fact that Congress didn't have Muslim representatives in the 1946 Provincial Elections. He claimed in his 1940 Muslim League Presidential Address that cultures, literature, and way of living and views on life were different from the two communities. The theory of one nation had been carried along too far and that it was nothing but a far fetched dream.

       2.  The British policy of Divide And Rule: -The English Govt played a significant role in the formation of the Muslim League. The English wanted to create dissensions among the people of India in order to consolidate their own position. The chief aim of the Muslim League was so spread the poison of communalism and the Muslim leaders had their own axe to grind through the medium of this organization. The Brits promoted communal electorates, special Care was taken to promote animosity between the two groups.        

                 3. Congress leadership:- Congress leadership underestimated Jinnah, Muslim League, its ambitions and outreach. The policy of appeasement of the Muslims, adopted by the congress also proved helpful in this field. Unfortunately, Congress couldn't understand the isolationist and aggressive policy of the Muslim and it continued to sustain the false, hope that there might be some miracle by which the communal problem could be averted forever.

      4. Communal Reaction:- As a result of Muslim Communalism spreading, Hindu Communalism also came into being. The staunch Hindus formed organizations like Hindu Maha Sabha that spearheaded Hindu causes. The system of Shuddi which was adopted by the Arya Samaj created doubt in the minds of the Muslims. Hindu Maha Sabha not only raised a slogan for the establishment of a Hindu nation but also blamed the Congress for being anti- Hindu organization. As a result of the Hindu communalism, the Muslim communalism grew all the more powerful and they raised the slogan of a separate nation.

                    The Partition of India was the 1947 partitioning of the British Indian Empire into India and Pakistan. According to estimates 14 million Hindus, Sikhs, and Muslims were displaced during the partition; it was the largest mass migration in human history.

Q.-  Discuss the process of formation of the Indian National Army (I.N.A). What was its role in the struggle for Indian Independence?

A.  The Indian National Army, I.N.A or Azad Hind Fauj was the army of Arzi Hukumat-e-Azad Hind (The Provisional Government of Free India). It was an armed force which was formed during World War II by Indian nationalists and Prisoners of war (PoWs). Its aim was to secure Indian independence from British colonial rule. The army was first formed in 1942 under Mohan Singh, by Indian PoWs of the British-Indian Army captured by Japan in the Malayan campaign and in Singapore. In the Countries of south-east Asia, there were large numbers of people of the Indian organ. When the British were defeated in Malaya and Burma, they left their Indian soldiers to their fate and fled. Taking advantage of this situation an old revolutionary named Rash Bihari Bose, who was living in Japan organized the Indians and formed the Indian Independence League. Japan handed over to the League the Indian Prisoners of war, who were organized into a liberation army. It became famous as the Azad Hind Fauj or Indian National Army (I.N. A.) 

                           The INA was initially formed under Mohan Singh, the captain in the 1/14th Punjab Regiment in the British Army. However, the first INA under Mohan Singh collapsed and finally it was revived under the leadership of Subhash Chandra Bose. INA emerged along with Mahatma Gandhi`s peaceful resistance movement within India. In contrast to Mahatma Gandhi, Bose advocated a more aggressive confrontation with the British authorities. The concept of an armed force fighting to overthrow the British Raj in colonial India with Japanese assistance originated within the Indian independence movement. During the Second World War, the plan to fight the British found revival and the number of leaders and movements was initiated. These included "liberation armies" formed in and with the help of Italy, Germany as well as in South-east Asia. Thus in South East Asia, the concept of the INA emerged. INA had many valued freedom fighters, who helped in the battles. They all had a brilliant background and fought for a similar cause, freedom of India. The INA freedom fighters were from every sphere ranging from barristers to plantation workers.. The revival of the Indian National Army was done by Subhas Chandra Bose. In 1943 he reached Singapore and assumed leadership of INA. Thus with his motivation and determination, INA doubled in strength and local civilians joined. Most of the people who joined had no prior military experience and thus to ensure a well-trained army.

Q.-   Write a note on the Non-Cooperation movement.

A-     The Non-cooperation Movement (Asahayog Andolan) was the next major event in the Indian struggle for freedom after the First War of Independence in 1857. This movement started in 1920 and lasted through 1922, supported all along by the Indian National Congress. Under Gandhi's leadership, the movement aimed at resisting British rule through non-violence. Activists refused to buy British goods, used only local handicrafts and picketed liquor shops. The goal was to uphold Indian honor and integrity in a peaceful manner. Thousands of common citizens rallied for the cause and it was the first large scale movement in the history of India’s independence.

               Many factors culminated over time leading to the Non-cooperation movement. Some of the significant causes were – growing British oppression of Indians as seen by the Rowlatt Act and Jalianwala Bagh massacre, economic inequality due to Indian wealth being exported to Britain, downturn of Indian artisans due to British factory-made goods replacing handmade goods, and strong resentment about Indian soldiers in the British army dying in World War I while fighting battles that otherwise had nothing to do with India. The non-cooperation movement seriously challenged the economic and political power of the British. The movement achieved overwhelming success across India. On February 5, 1922, violent clashes occurred between the local police and the protesters in Chauri Chaura. Three protesters were killed in police firing, and a police station was set on fire by the mob, killing 22 policemen.

                  Mahatma Gandhi felt that the movement had gone off-course and lost its non-violent nature. He did not want it to degenerate further and become violent. So he appealed to the Indian masses to cease the disobedience and went on a fast lasting 3 weeks. However, Gandhiji was arrested on March 10, 1922, and imprisoned for 6 years for publishing rebellious material. While most Congress leaders stood by Mahatma Gandhi, many nationalists felt that the Non-Cooperation Movement should not have been stopped due to isolated incidents of violence. Gandhi's commitment to non-violence continued and resulted in another major movement in the fight for Indian Independence – The Salt Satyagraha.

Q.-  a) Drain of wealth

A.      The Drain of Wealth theory was systemically initiated by Dadabhai Naoroji in 1867 and further analyzed and developed by eminent scholars. The "drain of wealth" depicts the constant flow of wealth from India to England during British Colonial rule for which India did not get an adequate economic, commercial or material return. The colonial government was utilizing Indian resources- revenues, agriculture, and industry not for developing India but for its utilization in Britain. If these resources had been utilized within India then it could have been transformed the Indian economy immensely by investing in manufacturing and rural areas and thus increasing the income of the people. Scholars opined that one-third of India’s national income was being drained away-in one form or the other. 

              According to Dadabhai Naoroji, the following forms of the drain can be identified:

• Home charges refer to the interest on public debt raised in England at comparatively higher rates; expenditure incurred in England by the Secretary of State on behalf of India; Annuities on account of railway and irrigation works; Indian office expenses including pensions to retired officials who had worked in India or England, pensions to army and naval etc.

• Remittances to England by Europeans to their families.

• Remittances for purchase of British Goods for the consumption of British    Employees as well as purchases by them of British Goods in India.

• Interest charges on public debt held in Britain.

       b) Rowlatt Act -

                              In the year 1919, the British Government passed a new rule called Rowlatt Act, under which the Government had the authority and power to arrest people and keep them in prisons without any trial if they are suspected with the charge of terrorism. The act was named after the recommendations made in the previous year to the Imperial Legislative Council by the Rowlatt Commission. The Rowlatt Commission was appointed to investigate the `seditious conspiracy` of the Indian people. The Law passed empowered the Viceroy Government with extraordinary power to stop all violations by silencing the press, confining political activists without trial and arresting any individual suspected of sedition and treachery and arresting individuals without any warrant.

              Nationalist leaders including Gandhi Ji were extremely critical about the enactment of the Rowlatt Act. To oppose the Act a nationwide protest was raised by calling a Hartal (cessation of work) where Indians suspended all the business and fasted to show their hatred for the British legislation.

Q.  What is de-industrialization? What was its impact on the Indian economy during the colonial period?  

 A.   De-industrialization is a long-term process of structural change in an economy to destruct industrial production. The process that leads to the long-time decline of industry, a fall in the contribution made by the manufacturing sector to national output, employment, income and overall prosperity of the country is called de-industrialization. 

       Impact on Indian economy during the colonial period -           

               India was a major player in the world export market for textiles and handicrafts. In the early 18th century, but by the middle of the 19th century it had lost all of its export market and much of its domestic market. Other local industries also suffered a decline, and India underwent secular de-industrialization as a consequence. While India produced about 25 percent of world industrial output in 1750, this figure fell to only 2 percent by 1900. There were a number of different ways to measure the extent to which our manufacturing sector experienced de-industrialization:-

        De-industrialization - The direct impact was, In the last three decades of the eighteenth century, East India Company after wiping out other European traders established their monopoly, thereafter English traders reduced the prices paid to Indian artisans. This excessive exploitation of Indian artisans weakened the very basis of handicraft industries by reducing the artisan to a low level of income. It also destroyed the possibility of accumulation of resources to invest in the industry and to improve its technology. After the Industrial Revolution in England, the handicraft industry faced further decay as traditional textile exports from India couldn't compete on scale and price with finished industrial goods. Easy availability of British goods without import duties further eroded home market demand for the handicraft industry. 

        Rural Decline- Other aspects of colonialism in India were the commercialization of agriculture and the subsequent decline of food grains production in the country. The rural economy was the backbone of the Indian economy during pre-colonial times. The British traders firstly seduced farmers in the transformation of crops from food grains to commercial crops like indigo, opium, etc which was commercially profitable for Company traders with a serious drawback for peasants. This negatively impacted economy as final products was purchased at lower prices while the reduction of food grains led to impoverishment and famines thus wiping out the purchasing power of rural masses. The survival and flourishing of home industries further took a beating indirectly as the home markets shrank while British traders benefited immensely under colonial rule.

       The drain of wealth - Another way by which Britishers exploited India was through the systematic policy of ferrying the economic resources of India to Britain. The officials of the British government were paid exorbitant incomes out of the Indian exchequer money by the levy of taxes on the Indian public.

          The industrial revolution and favorable conditions for British traders under colonial rule in India ended the role of individual artisans, caused havoc in the rural economy and caused irreparable damage to the textile, handicraft industry of India. However, in England and other European countries, the loss of craftsmen was compensated by the growth of industry and factory system. In India, the colonial policies did not allow the industry to grow freely and hence Indian economy shrank considerably under colonial rule. From the economy of India producing about 25 percent of world industrial output in 1750 before colonial rule, this figure fell to only 2 percent by 1900 during colonial rule. Therefore we can conclude that Colonial rule in India by its inherent nature, lopsided policies, and greed for profit worked for benefit of England and in turn impoverished India. 

Q2. What is communalism? Discuss the process of its emergence in Indian society.

A.   Communalism arises among the society when a particular religious or sub-religious group tries to dominate and promote its own interests at the expense of others. In simple terms, it can be defined as to distinguish people on the basis of religion. Communalism is political trade in religion to further the interests of one religious community by intimidating or subjugation of rest. It is an ideology on which communal politics is based and communal violence is threatened or perpetrated in the society causing division of society on a religious basis. It is basically an ideology which consists of three elements:-

1.  A belief that people who follow the same religion have common secular interests i.e. they have the same political, economic and social interests. It leads to communal groupings and division of society.

2.  A presumption that in a multi-religious society like India, these common secular interests of one religion are dissimilar and divergent from the interests of the follower of another religion.

3.  The interests of the follower of the different religions or of different ‘communities’ are seen to be completely incompatible, antagonist and hostile towards followers of other faiths marking social division and religious hatred among different religious communities.

         Communalism is used to construct religious or ethnic identity, incite strife between people identified as different communities, and to stimulate communal violence between those groups. It derives from history, differences in beliefs, and tensions between the communities.

 The emergence of Communalism in Indian society

Communalism was a method for providing service to colonialism and the jagirdari class (land officials). British authorities supported communal feelings and divided Indian society for their authoritative ruling.  Official patronage was given to communal organizations and attempts were made to placate several organizations with communal orientation. Communal press & persons and agitations were shown extraordinary tolerance. Communal demands were accepted, thus politically strengthening communal organizations. British started accepting communal organizations and leaders as the real spokesperson of communities and adopted a policy of non-action against communalism. In fact, for the same reasons even the communal riots were not crushed. Separate electorate started in 1909 further divided the society causing irreparable damage to social fabric creating a wedge that eventually led to the division of the country .

Stages in Indian Communalism

          The first stage was the rise of nationalist organizations of Hindu, Muslim, Sikh, etc. which were tacitly supported by British Colonial rulers. Roots of this were led in the latter part of the 19th century with the Hindu revivalist movements like the Shuddhi movement of Arya Samaj and the Cow protection riots of 1892. People like Syed Ahmed Khan, who despite having a scientific and rational approach, projected Indian Muslims as a separate community (qaum) having an interest different from others.

         The second stage was of Liberal communalism, it believed in communal politics but liberal in democratic, humanist and nationalist values. It was basically before 1937. For example organizations like Hindu Mahasabha, Muslim League and personalities like M.A. Jinnah, M M Malviya, Lala Lajpat Rai after the 1920s. 

         The third was the stage of Extreme communalism, this had a fascist syndrome. It demanded a separate nation, based on fear and hatred. There was a tendency to use violence of language, deed, and behavior. For example the Muslim League and Hindu Mahasabha after 1937.

Thus the Colonial rulers sowed the seeds of communal hatred in society causing deep division of Indian society leading to communal riots and eventual division of the country on a religious basis. The British rulers adopted the policy of 'Divide and Rule' to strengthen their roots while living in India. They divided the people of various communities of India and spread the feeling of distrust among them and hence they sowed the seeds of communalism in India.