EHI - 3

7th Part

Q.  Account for some of the major stages of development in the Tughluq architecture. 

A.    A new architectural style came into vogue in the buildings of this period during Tughluq. Judging from the remains, only the first three rulers of this house appear to have been interested in the art of building. However, the architecture of this period can be divided into two main groups. To the first group belong the construction of Ghiyasuddin and Muhammad Tughluq, and the other to those of Feroz Taghluq. The general features of the Tughluq style of architecture are listed below which is unique and different from earlier times :

a) Stone rubble is the principal building material and the walls are in most cases plastered.

b)  The walls and bastions are invariably battered, the effect is most marked at the comers.

c) Use of a new shape of the arch- the four centered arch-necessitating its reinforcement with a supporting beam. This arch-beam combination is a hallmark of the Tughluq style. The pointed horse-shoe arch of the preceding style was abandoned because of its narrow compass and therefore the inability to span wider spaces.

d)  The emergence of a pointed dome with the clearly visible neck in contrast with the rather stifled dome of the preceding style. 

e)  Introduction of encaustic tiles as an element of decoration in the panels of the buildings.

f) Emergence, in the tombs of this period, an octagonal plan which came to be copied and perfected by the Mughals in the 16th-17th century.

g) An additional feature was the element of reduced ornament, confined mostly to inscribed borders and medallions in spandrels executed in plaster or stucco.

Q.  Calligraphy in the Delhi Sultanate.   

A.  Calligraphy was the most revered art in the Islamic world and was used as a decorative feature both on stone and on paper. In the hierarchy of craftsmen, a calligrapher was placed above the illuminator and painter. However, the calligraphy of the Quran became one of the foremost forms of book art, where copies of the Quran were produced on a majestic and expansive scale. The earliest known copy of the Quran is dated 1399. It was calligraphed at Gwalior, and has a variety of ornamental motifs, derived both from Iranian and Indian sources. Calligraphy is an important element of decorative art in the buildings of this period. The Quranic sayings are inscribed on buildings in an angular, sober and

monumental script, known as a kufi. They may be found in any part of the building -frames of the doors, ceilings, wall panels, niches, etc., and in a variety of Material stone, stucco, and painting.

Q.  Account for some of the major stages of development in the Tughluq architecture. 
A.  With their architecture, as revealed in Alai Darwaza (built 1305) at the Qutub complex, and the Jamat Khana Masjid (built 1325) at Nizamuddin, a marked change in style appears. In the evolution of Indo-Islamic architecture, this phase occupies a
key position as it exhibits a distinct influence of the Seljuq architectural traditions (a Turkish tribe ruling- over Central Asia and Asia Minor in 11-13 century) as also certain salient features of composition which were adopted in the succeeding styles. 
The characteristic features of this phase may be listed below :
a) Employment of true arch pointed horse-shoe in shape.
b) The emergence of the true dome with recessed arches under the squinch.
c) Use of red sandstone and.decorative marble reliefs as new building materials.

d) The appearance of lotus bud fringe on the underside of the arch - a Seljuq feature.

e) The emergence of new masonry-facing, consisting of a narrow course of headers - alternating with a much wider course of stretchers again a Seljuq feature. In addition, the decorative features characterized by calligraphy, geometry, and arabesque now became much bolder and profuse.

Q. Discuss the growth of regional literature in South India between the 13th to 16th centuries. 

A.  Tamil Literature - In 13th century Villiputturar produced the Tamil version of the Mahabharata which is called Bharatam and which became popular among the Tamil speaking people. He introduced the tradition of using Sanskrit words and literary expressions in Tamil poetry. His contemporary, Arunagirinatha composed Tiruppagal - a lyrical and devotional work in praise of god Murugan. The period is also known for elaborate commentaries written by Vaishnava scholars. Another great author, Kachiappa Sivachariar composed Kanda-Purana in praise of God Subramanya.

Telugu Literature - Literature in the Telugu language made great progress from the 13th century onwards. During the 13th and 14th centuries, Telugu translations and adaptations of Sanskrit works were produced. The most important Telugu poet in the first half of the 14th century was Errapragda. He popularized the Champu genre of literary writing and composed the Ramayana in this genre. He translated a part of the Mahabharata and another Vaishnava Sanskrit Work Harivamsa into Telugu. Srinatha (1365-1440) was another great Telugu writer who translated Sriharsha’s Naishadha Kavya into Telugu. His contemporary Potana was a great poet who translated the Bhagavata Purana into Telugu. Telugu literature achieved its highest position in tile sixteenth century during the reign of the Vijaynagar king, Krishnadeva Raya, who himself was a poet in both Sanskrit and Telugu & who wrote Amukta Malyada in Telugu. One important characteristic of the Telugu literature of this period was the increasing influence of Sanskrit on the Telugu language.

Kannada Literature - 14th-century Virasaiva(religious movement) poet, Bhima Kavi composed the Basava Purana. Hoysala rulers patronized many Kannada poets and writers. One of them, Rudra Bhatta wrote Jagannathavijaya in the chimpu genre. This work was an adaptation from the Sanskrit work Vishnu Purana. The period between the 14th and 16th centuries saw further growth of the Kannada literature under the patronage of the Vijaynagar kings and their feudatories. One of the greatest poets of this period was Kumara Vyasa who composed the Kannada version of Mahabharata in the middle of the 15th century.

Malayalam Literature - Malayalam is the youngest of the South Indian languages originated as a dialect of Tamil in the Malabar region. Gradually, it separated itself from Tamil and acquired independent status in the fourteenth century. The political isolation of the Malabar region from Tamilnadu & the introduction of new linguistic forms by foreigners contributed to the development of Malayalam as an independent language. The earliest literature was in an oral form consisting of songs and ballads. The earliest literary composition was the Rama Charitam, produced in the 14th century. From the sixteenth century onwards, Malayalam began to come under the dominant influence of Sanskrit and borrowed a great deal from the latter.

Q.  List major regional architectural styles developed after the decline of the Delhi Sultanate. 

A.   Eastern India - Two major strands of architectural style emerged in this region which is in the regional state of Bengal and Jaunpur. 

Bengal - Independent building style, distinct from the one prevalent at Delhi, developed at the beginning of the fourteenth century and lasted for a period of nearly 250 years. Bengal style spread in all parts of the region, but most of the prominent buildings were located within the boundary of the Malda district. The two principal cities Gaur and Pandua enjoyed the status of the capital seat of the regional ruling power and hold many buildings. The building art of Bengal is generally divided into the following three phases of which the first two are preliminary stages and the third its ultimate development into a specific style.

#  The first phase is from A.D. 1200-1340 (During most of this time Gaur was the capital seat. Only in later years it was shifted to Pandua).

#  The second extended from A.D. 1340 to 1430, and

#  The third phase from A.D.1442 to 1576 when the Mughals captured the province. During this phase, the capital was shifted back to Gaur. The data in the form of buildings for the first phase is scanty. Even where two or three structures survive they are in a badly ruined state. It is, nonetheless, evident that the buildings raised during this period were wholesale conversions of the existing Hindu structures. Similarly, the second phase is also deficient in data as it is represented by a solitary example of Adina Masjid at Pandua (built 1364). It introduces two new features in the architectural style.

#  the dropped arch, have span greater than its radii & centers at the import level &

#  the method of raising the roof 

       The third phase is the most remarkable as it depicts the emergence of a semi-indigenous style in tune with the peculiar environment and local conditions in Bengal. Now, bamboos were used extensively and for decoration terracotta tiles, was adopted.

Jaunpur -  The surviving architecture of Jaunpur consists exclusively of mosques. The Sharqi Architecture of Jaunpur carries a distinct impact of the Tughluq style, the battering effect of its bastions & minarets & the use of arch-and-beam combination in the openings being the two most prominent features. However, the most striking feature of the Jaunpur style is the design of the facade of the mosques. It is composed of lofty propylons with sloping sides raised in the center of the sanctuary screen ex. Atala Masjid (built-in 1408) and the Jami Masjid.

Western Style - The regional style of architecture is almost exclusively confined to Gujarat. Gujarat: This regional style flourished for a period of some two hundred and fifty - years beginning the early 14th century. The founders of Gujarat style of

The indo-Islamic architecture was, in fact, the governors of the Khalji Sultans of Delhi. There were three different phases of the Gujarat style :

#  The first phase lasting for the first half of the 14th'century marked by the demolition of the Hindu temples and their reconversion into Muslim buildings.

#  The second phase prevailing mostly during the first half of the 15th century and showing signs of maturity of a distinctive style.

#  Finally, the phase beginning in the latter half of the 15th century when Gujarat style emerges in its own magnificent form. 

         The Gujarat style of architecture is the most indigenous in character which is highly Influenced by Hindu or Jain temples. Almost all the mosques from the second and third phases are composed in this manner.

Central India - In Central India, the development of Indo-Islamic architecture remained confined within the Malwa region. Indo-Islamic architecture in Malwa is located essentially within the confines of two cities, Dhar and Mandu, though some buildings are available at Chanderi. The Sultans of Dhar and Mandu have left a rich architectural legacy, the main buildings being mosques, tombs, and palaces. The buildings at Dhar and Mandu derive many features from the Tughluq architecture such as the battered walls, the fringed arch, and the arch-beam combination. Its own distinctive features also emerged. Some of the more prominent features are - 

#  the most important is an innovative technique by which the two separate structural systems of the arch & the lintel have been combined in Malwa architecture.

#  Another notable feature of the Malwa buildings is the construction of steps of considerable length leading to their entrances. This became necessary due to the use of unusually high plinths on which most of the important buildings are raised.

#  The most striking impressions conveyed by Malwa style are not structural but the result of decorative properties. In these buildings, the element of color assumes a significant role. Two separate methods for obtaining this color effect were used The first is the use of various colored stones and marble, and the second is by means of encaustic tiles.

Deccan - The Indo-Islamic architecture that developed in the Deccan from 14th century onwards under the Bahmanis acquired a definitely regional character quite early in its growth. The Deccan style of architecture consisted basically of the fusion of :

a) the architectural system in vogue at Delhi under the Sultans, particularly the Tughluq form, and

b) the architecture of Persia.

         The architectural developments in the Deccan may be divided broadly into three phases corresponding on each occasion to a change in the seat of the government. The first phase begins in 1347 at the capital city of Gulbarga. The second phase begins in

1425 when the seat of power is transferred to the city of Bidar. And finally, with the change of capital again in 1512 to the city of Golconda, begins the third phase lasting till 1687, the year of Mughal conquest. 

Gulbarga - The first phase of architectural development in the Deccan started in 1347. For the most part, they followed the contemporary Tughluq architecture of the North. The Jami Masjid (1367) inside the Gulbarga fort was, however, different and unique but was never replicated again. 

Bidar: The Brahman capital was transferred to Bidar, a fortress town, in 1425 by ruler Ahmad Shah (1422-36). Soon the new capital saw a flurry of building activity as within its walls sprang up palaces with large audience halls & hammams, mosques, a madrasa, and royal tombs. The substantive style of architecture was now composed of forms very largely borrowed from Iran, but modified and adapted to suit local conditions Some important features of Bidar style were:-

#   Since color was the characteristic feature of Iranian architecture, palaces at Bidar show a brilliant scheme of the use of colored tiles and the mural painting. The glazed tiles which covered the exteriors were imported by sea from Iran.

#  There is a distinctive change in the shape of some of the domes in the buildings at Bidar. The drums of these domes are made tall so as to project the domes in full view.

         The fall of the Bahmani Sultanate towards the beginning of the 16th century brought the first phase of the Deccan style to a close.

Vijaynagar Empire -  It is one of the most important historical and architectural sites as it is the only Hinged city from the pre-modern period of which extensive remains still exist above ground. The Vijaynagar style of architecture was distributed throughout South India, but the finest and most characteristic group of buildings is to be seen in the city of Vijaynagar itself. This city had a great advantage as granite and dark green chlorite stony both used extensively as a building material is abundant nearby. The expanse of the city Vijaynagar at the height of its glory measured some 26 sq. km and it was enclosed with a stone wall. Besides palaces and temples, the city had extensive waterworks and many secular buildings such as elephant stables and the Lotus Mahal. The use of monolithic multiple pillars in the temple at Vijaynagar testifies this fact. The basic elements of Vijaynagar style are listed thus :

#  The use of pillars for architectural as well as decorative purpose is on an unprecedented scale.

#  Numerous compositions are used in raising the pillars, but the most striking and also the most frequent is one in which the shaft becomes a central core with which an animal is attached. 

#  Another distinguishing feature is the use of huge reverse-curve eaves at the Cornice giving the pavillions a dignified appearance.

#  As noted above, pillars form an integral part of Vijaynagar architecture, almost all of which have ornamental brackets as their capitals. Usually, this bracket is a pendant known as bodegai in local parlance. The occurrence of this pendant is an index reliable of the building in the Vijaynagar group. 

            The glory of the Vijaynagar empire ended in A.D. 1565 at the battle of Talikota when the combined army of the Sultans of the Deccan inflicted a crushing defeat on the Vijaynagar ruler Ram Raya.

Q.  Write a note on the development of music in the 13th to 15th centuries. 

A.  Sangeet Ratnakar is the earliest known treatise on music which was composed by Sharangdev sometime between 1210-47 at the court of the Yadav ruler of Devagiri. Besides being a treatise on music -vocal as well as instrument Sangeet Ratnakar also delves into the details of the contemporary dance forms. It describes as many as 264 ragas classified into major and minor categories. This text is the first systematic exposition of the various elements of music. 

          In the 15th century two interesting musical treatises from Gujarat. The first one is called Sangeet Sudhakar and is attributed to Haripal Dev, the ruler of Saurashtra. It is the herb for the first time that the Indian musical form is divided into the Hindustani and the Karnatak styles. The other text is a Persian work called

Ghunyat-ul Munya, meaning 'pleasure of desire'. Unfortunately, the manuscript copy of this text is incomplete with its first folio & the last four Sub-sections missing. Thus the name the author is lost forever. This text has been of great value in several respects. It is the earliest treatise and commentary in Persian, on music and some of the Sanskrit texts on music respectively. Besides that, Ghunyat extensively uses some such Sanskrit works on music which have become extinct now. 

       In the 15th century, a text called Raag Tarangini became popular composed of Lochan Kavi. It contains illustrations from both Jaidev (of Geet Govind) and Vidyapati. Raag Tarangini is important for having initiated an alternative system of the division of rags.  Music got an impetus under the Sharqi rulers of Jaunpur in the second half of the 15th century. A connoisseur and an expert in his own right, Sultan Hussain Sharqi (1458-99) promoted vocal music by introducing a variant form of rendering khayal the Kalawanti khayal. He is also credited with some new rag, such as Jaunpuri Todi, Sindhu Bhairavi, Sindura, and Rasuli Todi. In the Vijaynagar Empire, the most significant treatise on the South Indian style is the Swarmel Kala Nidhi written by Ramamatya which is considered as the most authentic treatise of its kind and is frequently referred to by the music lovers today.

Q.  Elaborate on the main characteristics of painting traditions in India during the Sultanate period. 

A.   Western Style Painting - The Western Indian style was fully formed by the end of the 14th century. Paper manuscripts begin to appear regularly from the middle of the 14th century. Some important points are - 

#  Painting in these manuscripts is in a single plane, contained within a sometimes brilliant but always brittle line. The figures have been drawn on a red or ultramarine background.

#  Paper is seen as a surface to be decorated with colors in patterns, yielding in the best examples a brilliant jewel-like surface. The number of pigments used has increased- costly pigments such as ultramarine, crimson, gold and silver are used in increasing quantities.

#  Architectural elements are reduced to essentials. The hieratic little figures, and sometimes animals as well as household furniture, are little more than pictograms occupying boxes in a geometrical composition.

#  Mannerisms include the extension of the further eye, the swelling torso, and a particularly tortuous arrangement of legs in seated figures. Men and women are often practically indistinguishable.

           A careful study of the illustrated manuscripts in the Western Indian style makes it evident that they were apparently mass-produced at the great Jain centers of Pattan and Ahmadabad and are only superficially rich. Much rarer and far more beautiful are manuscripts individually created by professional artists for discerning patrons. 

Provincial Development -

Calligraphy - 

1)  Jaunpur : The Jaunpur School of Calligraphy flourished in the latter part of the 15th and first part of the 16th century. The manuscripts of the Quran calligraphed under this school use :

#  a script is known as Bihari,

#  crimson color in the frames for the text rather heavily.

#  much bolder designs of arabesque and creeper, with more inventive medallions in their illuminative content

2) Ahmedabad: The Ahmedabad School owes its origin to Sultan Mahmad Begarha of Gujarat; it lasted for about half a century (c: 1425-75). The script used for writing the Quran in this school is known as suluth. It was a serpentine, static script, used mostly in the Middle East for writing chapter-headings and inscriptions.

The Deccan Painting -  A distinct style of painting in the Deccan emerges in the kingdoms of Ahmadnagar, Bijapur, and Golconda in the late 15th and early 16th centuries. The use of daring colors--purple and yellow, pink and green, brown and blue - the sophistication and artistry of their compositions, and the traditional Deccani costume. The Deccani style drew on many sources including the Irani tradition. Some of the distinguishing features :

#  The faces in this style are commonly painted in three-quarters.

#  The grounds are shown as sprigged, i.e. sprayed with flowers or similar motifs.

#  Another Deccani feature is the reduction of buildings to totally flat screen-like panels. 

#  A typically Irani influence in some paintings is the golden sky.

#  And suggestive of the Chinese influence in some paintings are pink and green flowering plants, lotus and chrysanthemum.

Q.  Bhakti movement in Maharashtra.   
A.  Like other Vaishnava bhakti movements, the Maharashtra bhakti tradition drew its basic inspiration from that of the Bhagavata Purana. In addition, it was also influenced by the Saiva nathpanthi who was quite popular in the "lower" classes of the Maharashtrian society during the 1Ith and 12th centuries and who
composed their verses in Marathi. Jnaneswar (1275-1296) was the pioneer bhakti saint of Maharashtra. He wrote an extensive commentary on the Bhagavad Gita popularly called Jnanesvari. This was one of the earliest works of Marathi literature and served as the foundation of the bhakti ideology in Maharashtra. He was the author of many hymns called abhangs. Namdev (1270-1350) belonged to tailor caste. He is considered to be the link between the Maharashtrian bhakti movement and North Indian monotheistic movement. His bhakti songs have also been included in the Adi Granth. In Maharashtra. Namdev is considered to be a part of the varkari tradition (Vaishnava devotional tradition), but in the North Indian monotheistic tradition he is remembered as a nirguna saint, Other prominent bhakti saints of Maharashtra were Eknath (1533-99) and Tukaram (1598- 1650).

EHI - 3

6th Part

Q. Relation of Gujrat with neighboring states.

A.  The Kingdom of Gujarat since its inception had been constantly clashing with its neighboring territories -Malwa, Rajputana, Khandesh and the Bahmani kingdoms.

 Relations with Malwa

The Malwa rulers were their traditional enemies. In 1408, Muzaffar Shah attacked Malwa and made its ruler Hoshang Shah captive. Though Hoshang Shah had to accept the suzerainty of Muzaffar Shah, he was jealous of the rising power of Gujarat. To undermine its power, the rulers of Malwa used to join hands with the enemies of Gujarat. But Ahmad Shah of Gujarat succeeded in crushing Hoshang Shah's power. Later during Qutbuddin Ahmad Shah 11's reign (1451-59), Mahmud Khalji of Malwa attacked Gujarat but he was repulsed.

Relations with Rajputana

Another formidable power with which the rulers of Gujarat had been constantly at war was Rajputana. The first Rajput kingdom to form part of Gujarat was Idar (1426). Soon, Ahmad Shah overran Dungarpur (1433). Later, Qutbuddin (1451-59) and Mahmud Begarha (1459-151 1) had to face Rana Kumbha, the ruler of Mewar. The Rajput state of Champaner also constantly clashed with Gujarat. But finally, it was annexed to the Gujarat kingdom by Mahmud Begarha in 1483-84 who renamed it Muhammadabad and made it his second capital. 

Relations with Bahmani and Khandesh

The Bahmani ruler Feroz Shah maintained cordial relations with the Gujarati rulers. But after his death (1397-1422), a radical change came about with the accession of Ahmad Bahmani (1422-1436) who formed a matrimonial alliance with the ruler of Khandesh. When-Rai Kanha of Jhalawar fled (1429), Khandesh and Bahmani rulers gave asylum to him. This infuriated Ahmad Shah Gujarati and he had to use force against them. He subjected them to a crushing defeat and occupied Mahim. However, during Mahmud Begarha’s reign cordialities revived. When Mahmud

Khalji of Malwa attacked the Bahmani kingdom, Mahmud Begarha came twice to its rescue.

           Mahmud Begarha also maintained friendly relations with the Khandesh rulers, but Adil Khan II ceased to pay tribute and joined hands with Ahmadqgar and Berar. As a result, Mahmud Begarha attacked Khandesh and finally, Adil Khan was compelled to accept the suzerainty of Mahmud Begarha. But the latter did not annex either Khandesh or Daulatabad; instead, he confirmed their rulers on payment of tribute.

Q.  Explain the rise and consolidation of Bahamani power in the Deccan. 20

Q.  Examine the main features of the economy of the Vijaynagar empire.  12

Q.  Discuss the growth of Sufi orders in India during the Sultanate period  20

A.  Various Sufi orders were introduced in India after the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate at the beginning of the 13th century. During the 13th and 14th  centuries, khanqahs sprang up in various parts of India. The Sufi's introduced various orders in India from the Islamic world, built up their own organizations and

established themselves in their respective areas of influence. By the middle of the 14 century, the entire country from Multan to Bengal and from Punjab to Deogiri had come under the sphere of their activity. Once the Sufi orders took roots in different parts of India, they followed their own phases of growth, stagnation, and revival. 

SUFI ORDERS IN INDIA DURING THE SULTANATE PERIOD 

The Suhrawardi Sllsilah

The Suhrawardi silsilah was a major order of the Sultanate period. Its founder in India was Shaikh Bahauddin Zakariya (1182-1262). He was a Khurasami and was a disciple of Shaikh $hahabuddin Suhrawardi who had initiated the silsilah in Baghdad and was directed by the latter to proceed to India. He made Multan and Sind the centers of his activity. Thus, one of the oldest khanqahs in India was established by him at Multan. He accepted-State patronage and maintained links with the ruling classes. 

           In addition to Shaikh Bahuddin-Zdcariya, many other Khalifas were designated by Shaikh Shahabuddin Suhrawardi to spread the Suhrawardi silsilah in India. One of them was Shaikh Jalaluddin Tabrizi. After his initial stay in Delhi, where he failed to

establish his supremacy, he went to Bengal. He established his khanqah there and made many disciples. He attached langar (center for the distribution of free meals) to his khanqah. He is said to have played an important role in the process of Islamization in Bengal. During the Sultanate period, Punjab, Sind, and Bengal became three important centers of the Suhrawardi activity. They converted people with the help of the ruling class.

The Chishti Silsilah

The growth of the Chi&ti order in India during the Sultanate period took place in two phases.

First Phase

       The Chishti order became the most influential and popular Sufi order in India, originated in Herat & was introduced in India by Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti (d. 1236). He came to India at the time of the Ghori conquest and settled in Ajmer about 1206 and won the respect of both Muslims and non-Muslims.

         The successor of Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti in Delhi was Khwaja Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki (d. 1235). Shaikh Hamidduddin Nagauri (d. 1274), another Khalifa of Shaikh Muinuddin (Chishti, made Nagaur in Rajasthan center of his activity.

                Shaikh's Hamiduddin Nagauri established the silsilah in Nagaur where he lived like an ordinary Rajasthani peasant and dissociated himself from those in authority. He was a strict vegetarian. He and his successors translated many Persian Sufi verses in the local language called Hindavi. 

         Khwaja Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki was succeeded in Delhi by his Khalifa,  popularly as Baba Farid who left Delhi for Punjab and lived in his khanqah there.

         He despised association with the ruling class and rich persons. Nathpanthi yogis also visited his khanqah and discussed with him the nature of mysticism. His popularity in Punjab is clear from the fact that more than three hundred years after his death, verses ascribed to him Were included in the Adi Granth compiled by the fifth Sikh Guru, Arjun, in 1604. The most celebrated disciple of Baba Farid and the greatest Sufi saint of the 14th century was Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya (1236-1325) who made Delhi the most famous center of the Chishti order. Later. his successors spread the Chishti order in various parts of the country.

Second Phase

The second phase in the history of the Chishti silsilah during the Sultanate period began with its decline in Delhi following the death of Shaikh Nasiruddin and its subsequent dispersal in various regional kingdoms. Though the Sufis had begun to arrive in the Deccan from the late 13th century, it was Shaikh Burhanuddin Gharib who introduced the Chishti order there during the reign of Muhammad Tughluq. The Bahmani kings, on their part, purchased the political loyalty of these Sufis and gave land grants to them. The most prominent of these Chishtis was Muhammad Banda Nawaz, Gesudaraz (c. 1321-1422). He left for the Deccan and received a land grant of four villages from Bahmani Sultan, Feroz Shah Bahmani (1397-1422). He was an orthodox Sufi and declared the supremacy of Islamic law (Shariat) overall Sufi stages. Gisudaraz discontinued many practices of early Chishtis which clashed with the attitudes of orthodox ulema. After his death, the Bahmani Sultans continued the land grants in favor of his family descendants. His tomb or dargah in Gulbarga later developed into a popular place of pilgrimage in the Deccan. But the transformation of his descendants into a landed elite and their

indifference towards Chishti teachings led to the decline of living Chishti tradition in Gulbarga. The change of Bahmani capital from Gulbarga to Bidar in 1422 also contributed to the decline of the Chishti order in Gulbarga. 

           However. the Chishti tradition began to thrive again in the Deccan from the end of the 15th century and it continued to grow during the 16th and 17th centuries. 

Other Sufi Orders

In addition to the Chishti and the Suhrawardi.orders, there were others such as the Firdausi, 'the Qadiri,, the Shattari, Qalandari, etc. which were introduced in India during this period. 

                The Firdausi order was a branch of the Suhrawardi which established itself at Rajgir in Bihar towards the end of the 14th century. 

              The Qadiri was introduced in India in the late 14th century and established itself in the Punjab, Sind and the Deccan. The Qadiri had an orthodox orientation and its doctrinal positions were similar to those of the orthodox ulema. The Qadiri Sufis had close relations with the ruling classes of various provincial Sultanates and accepted state charity. The order was urban-based and attempted to reform the religious life of Indian Muslims of what is considered as un-Islamic influences.

           The Shattari order was introduced in India in the 15th century by Shaikh Abdullah Shattari, were also an orthodox order. The Shattari centers were established in Bengal, Jaunpur and the Deccan. Like the Qadiris, the Shattari Sufis Had close ties with the court and accepted state patronage.

           The Qalandari order covered a wide range of wandering dervishes who violated normal social behavior. They were considered reprehensible and above Islamic law. 'They had no recognized spiritual master and organization. Many Frequently visited Chisti khanqahs and became absorbed into the Chisti order. They also had contacts with the Nathpanthi yogis and adopted many of their customs and practices like ear piercing. 

          The Rishi order of Sufism flourished in Kashmir during the 15th and 16th centuries. .It prospered in the rural environment of Kashmir and influenced the religious life of the people during the 15th and 16th centuries. The popularity of the Rishi order was due to the fact and it drew inspiration from the popular Shaivite bhakti tradition of Kashmir.

Q.  Describe Salient features of Sufism

A.  There developed a number of Sufi orders Or silsilah in and outside India. All these orders had their special characteristics. However, there were a number of features which are common to all the Sufi orders Here we will discuss such features.

i)  Sufism, as it developed in the Islamic world, came to stress the importance of traversing the su& path (tariqa) as a method of establishing direct communion with divine reality (haqiqat).

ii)  According to the Sufi beliefs, the novice has to pass through a succession of "stations" or "stages and changing psychological conditions or "states" (hal) to experience God.

iii)  The Sufi path could be traversed only under the strict supervision of a spiritual director (shaikh, pir or murshid) who had himself successfully traversed it and consequently established direct communion with God.

iv)  The disciple (murid) progressed through the "stages" and "states" by practicing such spiritual exercises as self-mortification, the recollection of God's name to attain concentration (zikr) and contemplation. 

v)  The Sufis organized impassioned musical recital (sama). The practice of sama was intended to induce a mystical state of ecstasy. However, some Sufi orders did not approve of certain forms of sama and the ulema was particularly hostile to this practice.

vi)  Yet another feature of Sufism is the organization of the Sufi into various orders (silsilah). Each of these silsilah e.g. suhrawardi, Qadiri, Chishti, etc. Was founded by a leading figure who lent his name to it. A silsilah consisted of persons who had become disciples of a particular Sufi.

vii) The hospice (khanqah) was the center of the activities of a Sufi order. It was the place where the pir imparted spiritual training to his disciples. The popularity of the khanqah and its capacity to attract disciples depended on the reputation of the pir. The khanqahs were supported by endowment and charity.

Q.  Analyse the reasons for the popularity of Chishti Sufis in India.  

A.  All the Sufi orders of the Sultanate period believed in achieving the basic Sufi goal of .establishing direct communion with God by traversing the Sufi path under the supervision of a spiritual guide. However, different Sufi orders observed distinct rituals & customs of their own and differed in their attitudes to state and society. Of all the orders of this period, the Chishti emerged as the most popular, and it was also widespread. Chishti rituals, attitudes, and practices made it an essentially Indian silsilah. The causes of its popularity are as follows :

i)   Many practices of early Chlshtis bore a close resemblance to the attributes of some of the already existing non-conformist religious orders in India such as asceticism, bowing before the master, shaving the head of a new entrant into the order and organizing spiritual musical recital. In this sense, the Chishtis came to be regarded as part of an established tradition in India.

ii)  The Chishtis adopted an attitude of religious tolerance towards the non-Muslim the population of India and adjusted themselves to the needs of a predominantly non-Muslim environment. They made use of popular imagery and popular idiom to convey their ideas to their Indian followers and adopted many of their customs and rituals. Many of the Chishti saints made Hindavi the vehicle tor spreading their teachings.

iii)  The egalitarian atmosphere of the Chishti khanqahs attracted a large number of people from lower sections of Indian society. The Chishti attitude towards religion was characterized by sympathy towards the deprived sections of society. Caste distinctions of the Brahmanical social order were meaningless in the Chishti khanqahs. Merchants, artisans, peasants and even sweepers became the followers of the Chishti order. Nor did they accept, the two-fold racial division of the people by the Turkish ruling class into noble-Born and low-born.

iv)  The inspired leadership of the early Chishti masters, their aloofness from the court and their unwillingness to accept state patronage, their rejection of the orthodoxy and extreme attitudes of the ulema, and, finally, the combining of the simple precepts of Islam with the Sufi teachings contributed to the popularity of the Chishti order.

v) The popularity of the early Chishtis rose after their life time as the cult of saints began to develop in the later centuries around their shrines (dargahs). Later, legend-makers and writers of literature sometimes attributed the popularity of the early Chishti Sufis to their ability to perform miracles. In the subsequent centuries, traditions were invented to represent the early Chistis as being actively involved in the conversion of the non-Muslims who were believed to have been drawn to them due to their alleged miracle-performing powers. However, the early Chishti Sufis disapproved of the display of miraculous powers, though they did believe in the possibility of miracles. They did not consider the miracles of primary importance in Sufi teaching and practice. Nevertheless, the miracle stories about the early Chistis played an important role in enhancing the popularity of the Chishti shrines and the

Posthumous popularity of the Sufis themselves.

Q.  Write a note on the interaction between Sufism and the bhakti movement.

A.  The interaction between the two is clear from the remarkable similarities between the two. These similarities included an emphasis on monotheism, on the role of the spiritual guide (pir or guru), and on mystical union with God. Moreover, both the Bhakti saints and many Sufi orders were critical of the orthodox elements in Hinduism and Islam respectively. one prominent example of the influence of the bhakti movement on Sufism is offered by the Rishi order of the Sufis in Kashmir. Here, the non-conformist ideas of the famous 14th-century women bhakti-preacher, Lal Ded exercised a profound influence on the founder of the order Shaikh Nuruddin Wali.

              The interaction between the Chishti Sufis and the Nath Panth yogis during the sultanate period is a well-established fact. The movement of the nathpanthis had attained considerable popularity in Northern India, in particular among the lower sections of the society, during the 13th and 14th centuries. The nathpanthi yogis frequently visited the khanqahs of the leading chisti shaikhs and had discussions with them on the nature of mysticism. The translation of the Yoga treatise Amrit-Kund into Persian from Sanskrit even before the advent of Sufism in India led to the adoption of may meditative practices by the Sufis. The early chistis approved some of the ethical values of the nathpanthi yogis and their corprate way of life. Like the Chishtis, the nathpanthis had opened their doors to all sections of society, irrespective of caste distinctions. The common outlook of the two popular movements provided a basis for mutual understanding between Muslims and

Non-Muslims. 

              The adaptability of the Chishtis in the non-Muslim environment of India released syncretic forces and led to cultural synthesis. Many early chisti spoke in Hindawi and composed verses in it. The Chisti practice of sama provided the basis for a syncretic musical tradition such as of religious songs called qawwali which is said to have begun with Amir Khusrau.

Q.  Provide a brief account of the development of Hindi literature during the 13th to 15th centuries. 12

A.     This is the second phase in the growth of Hindi literature which began in the 14th-15th centuries. Various streams of the bhakti movement exercised a profound influence on the Hindi literature of this phase. This phase of Hindi literature has been characterized as -Bhakti Kala (Age of devotion) and it continued till the Mughal period. This phase which began with Kabir marked the richest flowering of Hindi literature. The bhakti poets of the period were two-fold: the saguna poets (who believed in god with

human form and attributes) and nirguna poets (who believed in non-incarnate Absolute God). 

          Kabir headed the nirguna poets. He used his strong and rough verses to present a powerful denunciation of various rituals. Another important characteristic of Kabir's short poetical utterances is the use of 'upside-down language' which consisted of a series of paradoxes and enigmas. It has been pointed out that Kabir inherited this from the nathpanthis and adapted it for an effective rhetorical and teaching device. Kabir and other "low-caste" monotheistic poets (Sen, Pipa, Dhanna, Raidas, etc.)expressed themselves in oral style. The poetry they composed forms a part of oral literature. Their verses were compiled much later - the earliest instance of their written compositions are from the Adi Granth in 1604. Being illiterate, they had no direct access to the Sanskrit literature. They expressed themselves in the local languages of the people. They composed Doha ( short rhymed poem). The poetry of Kabir and other saints of the 15th century played the most important role in transforming the Hindi vernaculars into a literary language.

         The poets belonging to the conventional Vaishnava bhakti movement in North India were mostly Brahmans and were familiar with Brahmanical scriptures and Sanskrit texts. Most of them were either devotee of Rama or Krishna. The greatest poet of Hindi literature was Tulsidas (A.D.1532-1623) who wrote the famous Ram Charit Manas in the Awadhi dialect of Hindi. Among the Krishna bhakti poets, Vidyapati composed verses about the love of Radha and Krisha in Maithili Hindi. The influence of his lyrical poetry was felt in Bengal and some Bengali poets imitated his songs. Vrindavan near Mathura emerged as a center of Vaishnava bhakti poetry by the end of the Sultanate period. These poets were devotees of Krishna and composed their verses in Braj bhasha. The greatest of these poets was Surdas (c. 1483-1563). Another great name in the Vaishnava bhakti poetry was that of Mira Bai (c. 1498-1543).

Sufi Contribution to Hindi Literature

               Sufi saints and other scholars of this period contributed substantially to the growth of Hindi literature. The Chisti Sufis made use of Hindi devotional songs in Sama (ecstatic singing and dancing) sessions. Sufi mystical and allegorical meanings were

given to various Hindi terms such as "Gopis", "Raslila", etc. The Sufi poets combined Islamic mysticism with imaginative use of Indian love tales, popular legends, and stories. Mullah Daud 's Chandayan (written in c. 1379) is the earliest of such poetical works. literary compositions of the Sufi poets also contributed to the corporation of many Arabic and Persian words into Hindi literature & thus played an important role in cultural and literary synthesis.

Q.  Enumerate the position of women in the Sultanate period. 

A.  There was almost no change in the lifestyle of the upper-caste Hindu women during this period. Women were subordinate to men in every walk of life - as daughter, wife and even after her husband's death (under her eldest son's care). Birth of a daughter was looked down upon since they were considered as a symbol of dishonor for the father. Their main duty was to produce progeny, especially the male child. They were strictly confined in the 'antahpura' (inner sanctum). The ancient rules enjoining early marriages for girls and the wife's duties to her husband and his kula (lineage) were continuously stressed. 

            Annulment of marriages took place in special circumstances such as desertion, disease or mental disorder. The position of Muslim women was also very much similar to their Hindu counterparts. As for female education, the women of poor classes did not have a chance for education, but the higher strata women seem to have received education and training. The example of Raziya shows that Muslim aristocracy did impart education to their daughters as well. The practice of Sati was prevalent but was confined to the upper strata of society. The degraded position of the widow seems to be the most important factor that encouraged sati. Among the Rajputs, the practice of Jauhar was also prevalent. In the event of an imminent defeat, their women were set on fire. 

          During this period among Hindus, the widow had the right to the property of a sonless husband, provided the property was not commonly held. The widow was not merely the guardian of this property but had the full right to dispose of it. Though in the face of these commentaries, it seems that the property rights of women improved in the Hindu society, but this could have hardly applied in a uniform manner all over the country. 

          During this time, purdah became a privilege of upper classes. Both Hindu and Muslim aristocracy guarded their women by keeping them hidden within the walled space of the antahpura and the harem while the poor (Muslim) women used burqa to cover their bodies.

Q.  Trace the growth and development of Persian, Urdu and Arabic languages and literature in India between the 13th and 15th centuries.  12

Q.  Provide a brief survey of Persian sources for Delhi Sultanate. 

A.  Arabic languages & Literature - Although attention was paid to the cultivation of the Arabic language in India after the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate, the Turkish rulers were more influenced by the Persian language. As a consequence, the production of literary works in Arabic was restricted to a small circle of Islamic scholars and philosophers. Sultan Feroz Shah Tughluq (1351-1388) patronized many Arabic scholars and it was under his patronage that the great Arabic dictionary - the Qamus - by Majduddin Ferozabadi was produced. After the disintegration of the Delhi Sultanate, the rulers of many provincial kingdoms also patronized Arabic learning. 

Persian Language and Literature - Amir Khusrau played a pivotal role in the development and spread of Persian literature. The reign of the Khaljis was a glorious period from the viewpoint of the growth of Persian literature in India. Amir Khusrau was a prolific and versatile writer and is said to have composed half a million verses and ninety-nine works on different themes. His poetry consisted of a great variety of forms - lyric, ode, epic, and elegy. His poetry was essentially Indian in sentiment though he followed Persian models in technique. Thus he created a new style of Persian which came to be known as sabaq-i Hindi or the Indian style. Five literary masterpieces composed by him are Mutla-ul Anwar, Shirin Khusrau, Laila Majnun, Ayina-I Sikandari and Hasht Bihisht. He also wrote gazals, these compositions show the great lyrical talent of his poetry. Amir Khusrau also wrote historical masnavis (narrative poems) which have great literary and historical value. Miftah-uI Futuh deals with the military successes of Sultan Jalaluddin Khalji. 'Ashiqa' is the story of romantic love between Khizr Khan, the eldest son of Sultan Alauddin Khalji and Deval Rani, daughter of Rai Karan, the Raja of Gujarat. In Nuh Siphr (The Nine Skies) he gives a poetical description of Sultan Qutbuddin Mubarak Khalji's reign. This work also contains references to contemporary social and religious conditions. The Tugqluq Nama describes Ghiyasuddin Tughluq's rise to power.

Another historical work written by Amir Khusrau is Khazain-ul Futuh in which he gives an account of Alauddin Khalji's conquests in the South.

             Hasan Dehlawi was another famous Persian poet during the Sultanate period. He was a friend of Amir Khusrau. He was one of the court poets of Sultan Alauddin Khalji. The quality of his ghazals earned him the title of S'adi of Hindustan. Poetical writings in Persian continued during the [reigns of the Tughluq and Lodi Sultans. The expansion of the Delhi Sultanate led to the extension of the Persian literature to various parts of India. The emergence of provincial kingdoms following the disintegration of the Delhi Sultanate also contributed to this process. With the foundation of the Bahmani kingdom in the Deccan, many Persian poets and scholars migrated to Gulbarga where they were patronized by the Bahmani Sultans.

Historical Works in Persian

                 One of the important contributions of Persian literature during the Sultanate period (and later during the Mughal period) was in the sphere of history writing. Many historians wrote the history of the period in the Persian language. For the history of the

Sultanate, we have to depend largely on the accounts provided by the court chroniclers of this period. The most important of these historians were Minaj us Siraj (author of the Tabaqat-i Nasiri), Isami (author of the Futuh-us Salatin), Shams Siraj Afif (author of the Tarikh-i Feroz Shahi). Among the Sultans Feroz, Shah Tughluq wrote the Futuhat-i Ferozshahi. But the greatest historian of this period was Ziauddin Barani. His Tarikh-i Ferozshahi is the most valuable work of history written during-the period. Barani completed this work in 1357. This book was named after  Feroz Shah Tughluq.

Urdu Language and Literature - by the end of the 14th century, Urdu was emerging as an independent language. Like Hindi, the basic structure of Urdu consisted of Khari Boli - a mixture of various dialects spoken in Delhi and surrounding regions. Delhi, during this period, was ideally situated for the growth of a synthetic language since, on the one hand, it was surrounded. by people speaking different dialects and, on the other hand, it had a Persian speaking ruling elite. Thus, Urdu adopted Persian script and Persian literary tradition but by incorporating the basic structure of Hindi

dialects evolved an individuality of its own.

             In its initial form, Urdu appears to have been devised as an improvised speech to enable the Persian speaking Turkish ruling class and soldiers to communicate with the local people including Muslim converts. This new common language took a century to acquire a concrete shape and came to be called "Hindavi" by Amir Khusrau. Hindavi thus forms the basis of both Hindi and Urdu. Amir Khusrau composed verses in Hindavi (using Persian script) and thus laid the foundation of Urdu literature. However, it was in the Deccan that Urdu first acquired a standardized literary form and came to be known as Dakhini during the 15th century. It developed first under the Bahmani rule and flourished in the Bijapur and Golconda kingdoms. Gesu Daraz's Miraj-ul Ashiqin is the earliest work in Dakhini Urdu. Till the 18th century, Urdu was called by various names such as "Hindavi", "Dakhini", "Hindustani" or "Rekhta" (which means mingling several things to produce something new). In its developed form, Dakhini Urdu traveled

back to the north and soon became popular during the Mughal period, It was during the period of the disintegration of the Mughal empire in the 18th century that the Urdu literature reached great heights.

Q.  Trace the growth and development of regional languages between 13-15 century - 12

A.  One of the important features of the literary history of this period is the development of Literature in regional languages in various parts of India. Regional languages that grew rapidly during this period in northern India included Hindi, Punjabi, Bengali, Assamese, Oriya, Marathi and Gujarati. 

Punjabi Literature - 

            'TWO distinct trends developed in the history of the Punjabi literature during the period between the beginning of the 13th century and the beginning of the sixteenth century. On the one hand, this period was marked by the growth of Sufi and bhakti

poetry and, on the other, by Heroic ballads and folk literature. The hymns composed by Guru Nanak in the sixteenth century imparted a proper literary form to the language. The second Sikh Guru Angad gave the Punjabi language a distinct script called Gurumukhi. The hymns composed by Guru Nanak were later incorporated in the Adi Granth by the fifth Sikh Guru Arjun in 1604.

Bengali Literature

       Folk songs called Charyapads composed between the 10th and 12th century are the earliest specimens of Bengali language. By the fifteenth, century, three main trends developed in the Bengali literature -

(i)  Vaishnav bhakti poetry

(ii) translations and free adaptations of the epics, and,

(iii) Mangala kavya

        The first great Vaishnav bhakti poet was Chandi das (1512-32) who patronized Bengali literature. TWO Bengali poets Kavindra and Srikaranandi translated the Mahabharta into Bengali verse during their reigns. In the early years of the fifteenth century, Kritivasa Ojha produced a Bengali poetical contemporary of Chandidas, Vidyapathi composed his devotional songs in the Maithili dialect but many of his songs were later absorbed-into Bengali under the influence of the Vaishnava movement. Chaitanya and his movement gave further impetus to the growth of the Vaishnava literature in Bengali. The second major trend in the history of Bengali literature which began from the early fifteenth century drew inspiration from the epics and other  Sanskrit scriptures. The third trend in the Bengali literature consisted of the emergence of Mangala kavya. These are sectarian political narratives and focus on the conflicts and rivalries among gods and goddesses. But they do contain humanistic elements, too, since they highlight popular aspirations and sufferings. 

Assamese Literature

Hema Sarasvati was the first poet of the Assamese language. She composed Prahladacharita and1 Hara-Gauri Samvada during the later part of the 13th century. Her contemporary poet was Harihara Vipra who chose episodes from the Ramayana and the Mahabharata for his poetry. The growth of the vaishnava bhakti movement under Sankaradeva in the second part of the fifteenth century made a considerable contribution to the Assamese literature. Kirtana ghosa is regarded as the most important Vaishnava religious text written in the Assamese language. It is an anthology of devotional songs, most of which were composed by Sankardeva but other poets also made their contributions. Sankaradeva also wrote many dramas (Ankiya Nat) which were based on the Purana episodes. 

Oriya Literature 

           It was during the 13th-14th centuries that the Oriya language assumed a literary character. Saraladasa (14th century) was the first great poet of Orissa. He composed the Oriya Mahabharata which is regarded as a great epic by the people of Orissa. Oriya literature began to enter into a new phase from the beginning of the 16th - century when the Vaishnava bhakti movement grew there under Chaitanya's influence. Many of Chaitanya's disciples translated or adapted Sanskrit works on bhakti into the Oriya language. One of the close associates of Chaitanya was Jagannath Das who became the greatest Oriya literary figure of his time. His Oriya translation of the Bhagavata Purana became popular among the people. 

Marathi Literature

Early Marathi literature was dominated by Saiva nathpanthis. Two earliest Marathi texts - Viveka darpana and the Gorakhagita -belonged to. the Nath Panth tradition. The Varkari bhakti saint-poet of Maharashtra further developed the bhakti literature in the Marathi language. The first among them was Jnanadeva (13th century). He wrote a commentary on the Bhagavad Gita. Another saint-poet belonging to the varkari tradition was Namdev (1270-1350). He composed a large number of Abhangas (short lyrical poems) in Marathi. He traveled to the north and later his verses were included in the Sikh scripture, the Adi Granth. Two other great saint-poets of medieval Maharashtra, Eknath (1548-1600) and Tukaram (1598-1649) belong to the Mughal period: they also made substantial contributions to the growth of the Marathi literature.

Gujarati Literature

Both Rajasthani and Gujarati languages emerged from old Western Rajasthani. During this phase, two main literary forms developed in the Gujarati literature - the prabhanda or the narrative poem and the muktaka or the short poem. The second phase in the history of the Gujarati literature began in the late fifteenth century with the spread of the Vaishnava bhakti poetry. Narasimha Mehta (1414-1480) was a great Gujarati bhakti poet. He made use of his poetry to popularize Vaishnava bhakti in Gujarat.

EHI - 3

5th Part  (Block7)

Q.  Who were the Afaqis and the Deccanis? To what extent could they be held responsible for the decline of the Bahmani kingdom? 

Q. Who was Afaqis? Examine the conflict between Afaqis and Dakhanis in the Bahmani kingdom. 

A.     Nobles played a crucial role not only as consolidators but also as kingmakers in the Sultanate. Every Sultan's interest was to win the loyalty of his nobles. The same tradition continued in the Bahmani kingdom as well. Right from Alauddin Bahman Shah's reign there three factions: one which helped Alauddin Bahman Shah in establishing an independent kingdom in the Deccan; the other was the Tughluq faction and the third faction comprised of local chiefs and vassals who had personal interests.

             From Alauddin Mujahid's reign (1375-78) onwards, a new factor was introduced in the composition of the nobility, i.e. the Afaqis. This word means 'universal'-persons who were uprooted and hence did not belong to any region. These Afaqis had migrated from Iran, Transoxiana, and Iraq. But it was during Ghiyasuddin Tahamtan's reign, in 1397, that the real clash between the Dakhnis and the Afaqis began when the Sultan appointed many Afaqis to higher posts: for example, Salabat Khan was appointed the governor of Berar. Appointment of the Afaqis to such high posts which were earlier held by the Dakhnis greatly raised dissatisfaction among the old nobility and the Turkish faction under the leadership of Taghalchin.  Taghalchin succeeded in reducing their influence as early as 1397 when he successfully conspired the murder of Ghiyasuddin and again Dakhnis who were the locals who had the upper hand. Ahmad 1 (1422-36) who for the first time

appointed Khalaf Hasan Basri, an Afaqi (with whose help he got the throne), to the highest office of wakil-i Sultanat and conferred on him the highest title of malik-ut tujjar (prince of merchants). This phenomenal rise was the result of the continuous expression of loyalty shown by the Afaqis compared to the Dakhnis. The Afaqis helped him in his escape during his Vijaynagar campaign and were suitably rewarded much to the anger of Dakhanis. Ahmad 1 recruited a special force of the Afaqi archers. Similar other favors were also showered on them. This policy created great resentment among the Dakhnis. Clashes between these two groups can be seen during Ahmad's Gujarat campaign when, on account of the non-cooperation of the Dakhnis, the Bahmani arms had to face defeat. This gulf widened further during Ahmad 2’s reign. At the time of the attacks of the Khandesh army on account of the noncooperation of the Dakhnis, only the Afaqis could be despatched. Humayun Shah (1458-1461) tried to maintain equilibrium between the two factions. During Ahmad Ill's reign (1461-b5 A.D.), the Dakhnis felt that much power was concentrated into the hands of the Afaqis with Khwaja-i Jahan Turk, Malik-ut tujjar and Mahmud Gawan at the helm of affairs. On the other hand, the Afaqis were dissatisfied because the power which they enjoyed under Ahmad 11's reign was greatly reduced under the latter's successor. Mahmud Gawan, the chief minister of Muhammad I11 (1463-1482), also tried to maintain the equilibrium between the two. But after Mahmud Gawan,  the equilibrium was disturbed, the successive weak kings became puppets in the hands of one group or other.  During Shihabuddin Mahmud's reign (1482-Ma), the clash reached its climax. While the king showed his distinct inclination for the Afaqis, the Dakhnis joined hands with the Habshi(Abyssinian) faction. The latter, in 1487, in a-desperate bid attempted to kill the king but failed. It resulted in a large-scale massacre of the Dakhnis which continued for three days. All these factional fights weakened the center and there were continuous rebellion and anarchy. Shihabuddin's death (1518) provided these nobles almost a free hand in their provinces. Finally, Ibrahim Adil Shah of Bijapur was the first to claim his independence in 1537. Thus began the physical disintegration of the Bahmani Sultanate.

Q.  Describe the main features of Nayankara and Ayagar systems under the Vijayanagara rulers. 

A.  The Nayankara System

The nayankara system was an important characteristic of the Vijaynagar political organization. The military chiefs or warriors held the title of nayaka or amaranayaka. Thus, according to scholars, the nayakas of Vijaynagar as warriors holding an office (kara) bestowed on them by the central government on condition of rendering military service. Amaranayankara was a designation. Conferred on a military officer or chief (nayaka) who had under his control a specified number of troops. These nayaks possessed revenue rights over land or territory called amaram (amaramakara or amaramahali). In the Tamil country and also in the Vijaynagar empire, the area of land thus alienated under this tenure was about 3/4th. The obligations and activities of the nayakas were among others, giving gifts to temples, repair, and building of tanks, reclamation of wasteland and collection of dues from temples The Tamil inscription, however, do not refer to dues given to the king or his officials by the nayakas.

The Ayagar System 

The ayagars were village servants or functionaries and constituted of groups of families. These were headmen (reddi or gauda, maniyam), accountant (karnam senabhova) and watchmen (talaiyari). They were given a portion of or plot in a village. Sometimes they had to pay a fixed rent, but generally these plots were manya or tax-free as no regular customary tax was imposed on their agricultural income. In exceptional cases, direct payments in kind were made for services performed by village functionaries. Other village servants who performed essential services and skills for the village community were also paid by assigning plots of land (like washerman and priest). The village servants who provided ordinary goods and services were leather workers whose products included leather bags used in lift-irrigation devices (kiapila or mohte), potter, blacksmith, carpenter, waterman (niranikkar: who looked after the maintenance of irrigation channels and supervised bankers and money-lenders). The distinguishing feature of the ayagar system is that the special allocation of income from land and specific cash payments were for the first time provided to village servants holding a particular office.

Q.  Discuss the salient features of local administration of the Vijayanagara 

A.   The local institutions of the earlier period (e.g., sabha, Nadu and lur). The powers of the territorial assembly (Nadu), as well as the village assemblies (Sabha and ur), were weakened during the time of the later Cholas. During the Vijaynagar period, these institutions did not completely disappear when the nayankara and ayagar systems came into prominence.

Nayankara System - The nayankara system was an important characteristic of the Vijaynagar political organization. The Vijaydagar inscriptions and the later manuscripts refer to the nayakas as territorial magnates with political aspirations which at times conflicted with the aim of the rulers.

The Ayagar System

It has already been pointed out that during the Vijaynagar period, autonomous local institutions, especially in the Tamil country, suffered a set-back. In pre-Vijaynagar days in Karnataka and Andhra local institutions possessed lesser autonomy as compared to Tamil country. During the Vijaynagar period in Karnataka, too local

territorial divisions underwent a change but the ayagar system continued and became widely prevalent throughout the macro-region. It spread in the Tamil country during the 15-16th century as a result of the declining power of Nadu and nattar.

Q.  Write a detailed note on the establishment & consolidation of the Vijayanagar Empire. 

A.      The state of Vijayanagar came into existence in 1336 with Harihara as its king. Soon this state developed into a powerful Vijaynagar empire. The focus of struggle among the local powers was the Krishna Godavari delta, Kaveri basin, the Tungabhadra doab & the Konkan region, the latter known for its fertility and access to high seas. During the 8-13th century, the struggle was between the Rashtrakutas and the Pallavas while the following centuries saw Vijaynagar and Bahmani kingdoms locking horns. The Bahmanis compelled the Vijaynagar rulers to expand laterally westward and eastward across the peninsula from the main center of their power on the Tungabhadra. The Vijaynagar rulers also found it difficult to crush the Bahmani power in Raichur and Tungabhadra doab because of the latter's alliance with the Velamas of Rajakonda in Warangal. These circumstances prevented Vijaynagar from advancing towards the north and forced it to expand laterally eastward and westward across the peninsula and southwards into the Tamil country. Later however this alliance broke up which enabled Vijaynagar to expand at the cost

of Bahmanis.

Early phase - On account of constant clashes, the Vijaynagar boundaries kept on changing. Between 1336-1422, major conflicts took place between Vijaynagar and the Bahmanis with Telugu-Choda chiefs siding with the latter while the Velamas of Rajakonda and the Reddis of Rajahmundry joined hands with Vijaynagar. This tilted the balance largely in favor of the latter. During 1422-46, clash over the annexation of Raichur doab started between the

Vijaynagar and the Bahmani rulers which resulted in Vijaynagar defeat. This greatly exposed the weaknesses of the Vijaynagar arms. It forced its rulers to reorganize the army by enlisting Muslim archers and engaging better quality horses. During this period the entire Kondavidu region was annexed to the Vijaynagar empire. 

Between 1465-1509 again, the Raichur doab became the cockpit of clashes. In the beginning, Vijaynagar had to surrender the western ports, i.e. Goa, Chaul and Dabhol to the Bahmanis. But, around 1490, the internal disintegration of the Bahmani kingdom began with the establishment of Bijapur. Taking advantage of the situation, Vijaynagar succeeded in occupying the Tungabhadra region. 

       The Gajapatis of Orissa were an important power in-the eastern region. They had in their possession areas like Kondavidu, Udayagiri, and Masulipatam. The Vijaynagar rulers succeeded in expelling the Gajapatis as far as the Godavari and occupied Kondavidu, Udayagiri, and Masulipatam. But soon in 1481, Masulipatam was lost to the Bahmanis. 

Krishnadeva Raya, 1509-29

This phase is marked by the achievements of Vijaynagar’s greatest ruler Krishnadeva Raya (1 509-29). During this period; the power of the Bahmanis declined, leading to the emergence of five kingdoms. This helped Krishnadeva Raya greatly in capturing Kovilkonda and Raichw from the Adil Shahis of Bijapur and Gulbarga and Bidar from the Bahrnanis. Krishnadeva Raya also recovered Udayagiri, Kondavidu (south of fiver Krishna), Nalgonda (in Andhra Pradesh) Telingana and Warangal were taken, from the Gajapatis. 

Q.  What role did religion and religious classes play in the political, social and economic life of the Vijaynagar empire.

A.    Religion and religious classes played an important role in the political, social and economic life of the Viiaynagar empire. 

Ritual Kingship

It is generally emphasized that the principle of strict adherence ta dharm was the chief constituent and distinguishing feature of the Vijaynagar state. But very often it was the Hindu rulers against whom the Vijaynagar rulers had to fight, e.g. the Gajapatis of Orissa. The most strategically placed contingents of the Vijaynagar

army were under the charge of Muslim commanders who played an important role in the victory of Vijaynagar against its Hindu riyals. The successful military deeds of the Vijaynagar rulers led them to assume the title of digvijayans. Vijaynagar kingship was symbolic in the sense that the Vijaynagar rulers exercised their control through their overlords over a region beyond the prime center of their authority. This symbolism was manifested through the instrument of religion which was used to ensure loyalty from the people. For example, ritual kingship is best exemplified in the mahanavami festival. This was an annual royal ceremony lasting for nine days between 15 September and 15 October. It culminated in the dusserah festival on the tenth day. Important personages (e.g., military commanders) from the peripheral parts participated in the festival. Through this festival, recognition of the sovereignty of Vijaynagar rulers by peripheral parts of the empire was strengthened. Though the Brahmans participated in the festival, their role was not predominant. The ritual rites of the festival were largely performed by the king himself. 

Political Role of the Brahmans

A distinct feature of the Vijaynagar state was the importance of the Brahmans as political and secular personnel rather than ritual leaders. Most of the Durga dannaiks (in charge of forts) were Brahmans. Literary sources substantiate the theory that fortresses were significant during this period and were placed under the control of the Brahmans, especially of Telugu origins. During this period, the majority of educated Brahmans desired to become government servants as administrators and accountants which offered them good career prospects. The Imperial Secretariat was totally manned by the Brahmans. The Brahmans also played an important role as military commanders in the Vijaynagar army. For example, under Krishnadeva Raya Brahman Timma received economic support as he was an integral part of the political system. Thus Brahmans constructed and commanded fortresses in different parts of the empire for which they were assigned revenue of some crown villages. 

Relationship between Kings, Sects, and Temples -

To establish effective control over the distant Tamil region, the Vijaynagar filer sought the help of the Vaishnava sectarian leaders who hailed from the Tamil country. For legitimizing their power in this region, it was necessary for the rulers, who were aliens in the Tamil region, to establish contacts with the basic Tamil religious organisation-the temples. The relationship between kings, sects, and temples can be explained in terms of four assertions :

 I) Temples were basic for sustaining kingship.

 2) Sectarian leaders were the connecting links between kings and temples.

 3) Though the routine supervision of the temples was done by local sectarian groups, the task of solving disputes concerning temples was in the hands of the king.

4) The intervention of the king in the above matter was administrative, not legislative. During 1350-1650, numerous temples sprang up in south India. Through grants or gifts to the temples in the .form of material resources (a part of the agricultural

produce of specified villages), a particular type of agrarian economy evolved under the Vijaynagar rule.

Q.  Kingdom of Jaunpur

A.    The city of Jaunpur on the banks of river Gomti was founded by Feroz Shah Tughluq during his second Bengal campaign (1359-60). This city became a strong power-base, and it soon evolved as a rival to Delhi for some time. Malik Sarwar, a noble of Feroz Shah Tughluq, took full advantage of the succession tussle among the sons of Feroz and rose to the high position of wazir under Sultan Muhammad Shah (1390-94). The invasion of Timur, which virtually shattered the kingdom of Delhi, gave Malik Sarwar an opportunity to declare his independence in Jaunpur. He extended his hold over Kol (Aligarh), Sambhal and Rapri (in Mainpuri district). He brought the rulers of Jajnagar and Gwalior under him. His son, Ibrahim Shah Sharqi (1401-40) efficiently expanded the territories of the kingdom. He took Kanauj in 1406. He also captured Kalpi (1414) and successfully subdued Ganesh, the ruler of Bengal, in 1414. During the closing years of his reign (1437), he again turned his attention towards Delhi and captured some of its neighboring Parganas. Bahlol Lodi annexed Jaunpur in 1483-84 and placed it under the charge of. Mubarak Nohani.

Q.  Trace the emergence of Malwa as an independent kingdom after the decline of the Delhi Sultanate.

A.  The decline of the Sultanate paved the way for the emergence of the independent kingdom of Malwa. Dilawar Khan Ghori, (d. A.D. 1406), the Tughluq governor of Malwa, assumed independence in the year A.D. 1401-2 and declared himself the king of Malwa. He extended the boundaries of his kingdom by occupying Nimar, Sauyar, Damoh, and Chanderi. Dilawar Khan married his daughter to Ali Sher Khalji, the son of Malik Raja Faruqi of Khandesh, and took his (Faruqi ruler's) daughter for his son Alp Khan. These matrimonial alliances helped him in safeguarding his southeastern frontier. By maintaining friendly relations with Muzaffar Shah of Gujarat, he successfully saved Malwa from attacks, but soon after his death in A.D. 1407, Malwa fell a prey to the imperialistic designs of Muzaffar Gujarati. But in 1408, Hoshang Shah (1406-35) succeeded in regaining control over the Malwa throne. Hoshang Shah had entered into a matrimonial alliance with the Muslim ruler of Kalpi to use the latter as a buffer between Jaunpur-Malwa and Delhi-Malwa.

             Hoshang Shah's successor Muhammad Shah proved incompetent. During his brief reign bf one year, the court of Malwa became a hotbed of intrigues leading to disastrous results. The chaos culminated in his murder (1436) by his noble Mahmud

Khalji. Thus came the end of the Ghorid rule itself. Mahmud Khalji after successfully tackling the nobles and consolidating his internal position looked for further extension of Malwa. 

           Rana Kumbha, Mewar king had promised Umar Khan, son of Hoshang Shah, to install him in place of Mahmud Khalji. In the battle of Sarangpur (1437), Mahmud Khalji was defeated and taken prisoner. Later, Mahmud Khalji took advantage of the confusion that emerged in Mewar after Ranmal's death: he attacked Mewar in 1442. Though Mahmud had occupied Gagraun (1444) and Mandalgarh (1457), Rana Kumbha was able to keep his territory intact and well-defended. This rivalry continued unabated. Ghiyas Shah (1469-1500), the son and successor of Mahmud khalji paid more attention to consolidation rather than conquest. As a result, with the exception of a brief tussle with the Rana of Mewar (1473), the period was of a long peace.

Q.  Discuss the characteristic features of the regional states of North India in the 14th— 15th centuries. Can they be truly called the successor states of the Sultanate?

A.    The foremost feature of the 14-15th-century polity was 'vertical' penetration rather than the 'horizontal' one, i.e. horizontally the area under their control was smaller compared to the Sultanate but within their area of influence they 'vertically '

penetrated deep into the rural areas. Under regional rulers, the maximum area lay outside their effective control; even where they exercised a good measure of control, there, too; they often faced some difficulty. On this basis, we can divide their domain into three kinds:

i) Where land revenue was extracted from the peasants directly through revenue officials, the state's influence and control.was of a high order.

ii) Areas where revenue was collected through local chiefs, the state's control was still good enough.

iii) The states that were satisfied with the tribute only. the degree of control was minimal. This relationship had a direct bearing on regional rulers' relations with the nobles, tributary chiefs or rajas and local aristocracy (the so-called Zamindars, muqaddams, etc.). 

Another important feature was a frequent and fierce struggle between the Muslim-Muslim and Hindu-Hindu rulers rather than between Hindu-Muslim rulers. For example, Gujarat’s traditional enemies were Muslim rulers of Malwa and Jaunpur, there was continuous warfare between Kamata and Ahom rulers; Orissa rulers continuously faced the might of the Vijayanagar rulers and in Rajputana, quarrels took the inter-clan character. They never showed unity even in dire needs. 

NORTH INDIAN KINGDOMS AS SUCCESSOR STATES - Generally, the regional kingdoms are considered as 'successor' states of the Sultan. Some of the founders of the regional kingdoms at one point of time were either governor of the Sultanate or had served under them in some capacity. The founders of the regional kingdoms of Gujarat, Malwa, and Jaunpur respectively, served as governors under the Tughluq Sultans. Besides, Bengal rulers also had direct and continuous links with the Sultanate. But the Rajputana states, though always a prey to the Sultanate onslaught. never accepted the complete hegemony of the Sultans. As and when the opportunity arose they threw off the Sultanate yoke and succeeded in maintaining heir clannish character. Similar was the cast with Sind. Under the Sultanate pressure, the Sind rulers accepted the suzerainty of Iltutmish; Muhammad Tughluq and Feroz Tughluq, but for all practical purposes Sumirah and Sammah rulers ruled independently. Their development was entirely independent of the Sultanate.